y #

Published Quarterly at

San Marcos,
Texas

Vol. 1 No. 1
March 31, 1949

Application for Entry as Second-Class Matter Pending. Act of Aug. 24, 1912

Pocket gophers as architects of mima (pimple mounds of

the Western United States. W. Armstrong Price - 1

Southwestern water resources — their conservation and

utilization. Morgan H. Rice _ _ _ _ ______ ________ 17

Interdependence of physical and social sciences in the

atomic age. J. W. Baldwin . t — - $£. - L 26

The biotic community concept as applied in historical

geology, Walter P. Taylor % _ g| _ i _ _ _ - , 34

The conservation of archaeological resources in Texas.

T. N. Campbell and Alex D. Krieger _ _ _ 4^ 40

Russia and America — conflicting ideologies or divergent

civilizations? Charles von Schwanitz . _ ____ _ — — 45

The forest regions of Texas. S. L. Frost . J _ __ _ _ 52

On the need for correlation of biological research in

Texas, J. L, Baughman . . - _ _ _ ... - . 56

The scientific method in the social field. E. E. Rosaire ~ 58
The mammals of the Sierra Vieja region. W. Frank Blair

and Clay E. Miller, Jr. _ _ ______ _ 67

Penicillin and streptomycin sensitivity of some protozoa.

John B. Loefer _ _ _ _ _ ........... _ _ _ .... _ _ _ a _ _ 92

Cancer of the human genital organs. Max N. Huffman-™™,- 94

Abstracts— Fiber plants, O. E. Sperry ; Changes in natural vegetation, T. B.
Trew ; A compact sensitometer, A. D. Glover ; Col. Jared E. Groce, M. L. Crim-
mins ,* Competition between antelope and sheep, H. K. Buechner ; African spitting
cobras, C. W. Horton ; Precipitation of copper hydroxide, S. E. Turner and R. C.
Anderson; Conservation of man, J. G. Sinclair ; Scientific academies, C. D.
Leake ; Elementary dynamics, J. D. Boon ; Dual rotation, G. L. Ewdards ; Laws
of definite proportions, B. E. Schulze ; Prairie three awn grass, A. H. Walker ;
Pain and the asphyxia of nerve, E. P. Porter and J. L. Coleman ; Sex determi¬
nation in Bonellia viridis, W. W. Nowinski ; Individuality in nature; the psycholo¬
gist’s viewpoint, G. V. Ramsey; Life of cells in vitro, C. M. Pomerat ; Individu¬
ality in nature; Biochemistry, R. J. Williams; Holmes, the scientific writer,
■ Leona Meissner . _ : . . . . ... . . . — _ _ _ _ _ _ „• 95

CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS
OF THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1949)

President

J. Brian Eby

Geologist, Esperson Bldg.

Houston

Ex, Vice President

C, M. Pomerat

Medical, Br., U. of T.

Galveston

Secretary -Treasurer

Gladys H. Baird

Social Sciences

Huntsville

Im. Past President

L. W. Blau

Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Houston

Editor

J. L. Baughman

Marine La., G.F.O.C.

Rockport

Pres. Conserv. Coun.

J. G. Sinclair

Medical Br., U. of T.

Galveston

Rep. to A.A.A.S.

C. D. Leake

Dean, Medical Br., U. of T.

Galveston

V. President, Sec. I, Physical

Newton Gaines

Physics, Texas Christian U.

Fort Worth

V, Pres. Sec. II, Biological

Gordon Gunter

Marine Inst., Univ. Tex.

Port Aransas

V. Pres. Sec. Ill, Social

Frank E. Luksa

Sociology, Southwestern

Georgetown

V. Pres. Sec. IV, Geological

S. A. Lynch

Geology, A. & M. College

College Station

V. Pres. Sec. V, Conservation

Paul H. Walser

Soil Conserv. Serv.

Temple

Collegiate Academy Charles La Motte

Biology, A. & M. College

College Station

Junior Academy

Greta Oppe

Chemistry, Ball Senior High

Galveston

BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1949)

President

J. Brian Eby

Geologist

Houston

Ex. Vice President

C. M. Pomerat

Medical Br., U. of T.

Galveston

SecretatiY-T^aSurefr ' Gladys H. Baird

Social Sciences

Huntsville

Im. Past-President

L. W. Blau

Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Houston

Elected Director

E. P. Cheatum

Biologist, S.M.U.

Dallas

Elected Director

J. C. Godbey

Chemistry, Southwestern U.

Georgetown

Elected Director W. Armstrong Price

Geologist

Corpus Christi

BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1949)

Beauford Jester

W. R. Woolrich, Dean

J. Brian Eby

Governor of Texas

Engineering, University of Texas Consulting Geologist

Austin

Austin

Houston

E. D. DeGolyer

0.

S. Petty

L. W. Blau

Consulting Geologist

Petty Geophysical Company Humble Oil & Ref. Co.

Dallas

San Antonio

Houston

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Chairman — George E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons
Paul C.Witt, Chemistry, Abilene Christian
Alpine

G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross
Wm, McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross
Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T.

Ronald K. DeFord, Geology, U. of T.

Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar
Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology,

Mary Hardin-Baylor
Brownwood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne
College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M.
Commerce

Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E.T.S.T.C.

Corpus Christi

W. Armstrong Price, Geologist, Box 1860
Dallas

E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S. M. U.

Victor Sehoffelmayer, Chemurgy,

4440 Beverly Dr.

Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical
Hardy Kemp, Southwestern M<

Dent°n mrfrfi

B. B. Harris, Dean,

Spencer Stoker, SochOjiaeience, T.S.C.W.

Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U.

Galveston

C. M’. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U.
Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T.
Huntsville

Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C.
Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I.
Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Sirandtmann, Entomology,

Texas Tech

J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech
Arthur W. Young, Agronomy,

Texas Tech
Nacogdoches

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography,
S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer,

Incarnate Word

Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.S.T.C.
Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton
Hugh B. Smith, Biology, John Tarleton

T. Gootch, Chemistry, Baylor
Davidson, Biology, Baylor

tT3 (3<f

ANNOUNCEMENT

To All Members Of The Texas Academy of Science

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Ill

the fact that in the past it has been the custom for the editor to obtain
the reprints from the publisher and then collect from the individual
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100 Copies

On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper

1 Page 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12

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10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s
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Publications Committee

J. L. Baughman, Editor
L. W. Blau
John G. Sinclair
J. Bryan Eby

12 to 16
Pages
15.40

5.81

IV

NOTE

Your Editorial Board is anxious to make the Texas Journal of
Science the very best publication that it possibly can. For that reason
we welcome criticism of this first number, especially. Already we have
seen at least two places where changes will improve the format of the
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We would like to state, in passing, that it is not going to be possible,
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without greatly raising the cost. For that reason we have, in this first
issue, used only regular and black face.

J. L. Baughman, Editor
John G. Sinclair
L. W. Blau
J. Brian Eby

Vol. I

Texas Journal of Science

March 31, 1949

No. 1

POCKET GOPHERS AS ARCHITECTS OF MIMA (PIMPLE)
MOUNDS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES

W. ARMSTRONG PRICE
Consulting Geologist
Corpus Christi, Texas

ABSTRACT

Small structureless bi-con vex mounds of fine to coarse, sandy to gravelly soil, 1.5 to 8
feet high and 10 to 200 feet wide, are found in large colonies with sub-equal distribution
and unimportant variations as mima, “pimple”, “sand”, or “hog-wallow” mounds in sandy
soil occurring widely in most major geomorphic provinces west of Mississippi river. “Hog-
wallow” mounds in heavy clay and polygonal earth mounds of frozen ground — locally more
numerous and closely spaced — are excluded. Mima mounds are built and occupied by small
fossorial vegetational rodents in grassland or forest glade, but only under marginal living
conditions of impaired underdrainage, or too-thin soils. No physical agency can form
mounds so widely distributed. If it could west, why not east of the Mississippi ? Seen to
form in from 5 to 17 years, the mounds persist for thousands of years on stabilized plains.
They diversify soils, drainage, groundwater, vegetation and distributions of soil-living ani¬
mals. This study combines the latest field work of mammalogists, soil scientists and ecolo¬
gists studying the rodent and mounds, with a full review of the literature and a continent¬
wide analyis of mound distribution. Some 40 living scientists have contributed unpublished
data.

INTRODUCTION

These small round to oval, tabular, domal, to conical mounds of
sandy or gravelly soil, 1.5 to 8 feet high and 10 to 200 feet wide, occur
in colonies of hundreds of thousands on treeless prairies, in woods and
some forests, in mountain meadows and on other surfaces of slight
topographic relief from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in Louisiana
and Texas through the Rockies to Washington and Oregon, Fig. 1.

These mounds have for 100 years excited the cUriority of scientists,
especially as, until the present decade, no satisfactory explanation of
their presence had been found in spite of numberless suggestions and
partly developed hypotheses put forward by naturalists and profes¬
sional scientists of numerous branches. The failure of these hypotheses
and the mystery of the mounds seem to give us another example of
the difficulty of solving a problem that intrudes itself into several
departments of science during their early stages, while its solution
requires a broad synthesis in several of these, possible only at somewhat
advanced stages. In this case ecology is the meeting ground.

The pocket gopher * is an underground rodent farmer, living in
porous, sandy or gravelly soils and eating roots, bulbs and some above¬
ground parts of plants. Two students of this farm and garden pest,
W. W. Dalquest and V. B. Scheffer, as late as 1942, as a result of detailed
field investigations of the habits and living conditions of the gopher,
finally gave us a clew to mima mound building which has proven
highly fruitful and has permitted, for the first time, a relatively thorough
analysis of the origin, occurrence and scientific significance of these
mounds to be made.

* The pocket gopher is a small, shy, chunky, rat-sized or squirrel¬
sized rodent with a variety of fur coloration. The more active, slenderer,
whistling, ground squirrel and a land turtle have been called “gophers”,
the word connoting “diggers”.

2

4

The subject of mima mound origin was reopened by a symposium
in the pages of the Scientific Monthly from October, 1947, to April,
1948. This began with a restatement by Scheffer (1947) * of the work
and conclusions of Dalquest and himself and included the happy dis¬
covery and publication of a long-lost first-hand observational study of
the actual construction of mounds where the rodent was the only active
soil-moving agent (F. C. Koons 1948). The symposium discussion con¬
tinued until the writer’s review and analysis was well under way, when
the editors of Scientific Monthly kindly referred further contributions
to him. The writer’s study has been made possible largely through the
assistance of leading students of the pocket gopher and his environment,
working mostly in the Federal scientific bureaus, who have placed the
current results of their investigations at his disposal. Most of the results
of late ecological field studies were learned through the interest of
V. B. Scheffer, William B. Davis and the Scientific Monthly. Material
not available to the symposium writers and a wider distribution study
have contributed to the present results.

Some forty scientists have contributed information to the current
study, the larger number supplying data on regional mound distribu¬
tion. Ecologists, mammalogists, soil scientists, geologists, anthropologists,
and others have cooperated freely. The pertinent literature has been
reviewed by the writer in the attempt to compile and collate all vital
information on the subject available at the end of 1948. New geological
field work has been done on mounds in Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma,
Arkansas and Missouri. Observations of pertinent soil and topographic
features have been made in seven states not known to have mima
mounds.

Individual acknowledgment can be made here to only a few of
those who have so generously assisted, and the writer assumes full
responsibility for the conclusions and this summary. Full publication is
planned elsewhere.

Mound Correlation. — Detailed field analysis, some topographic
mapping and the aerial photographic coverage of the continental United
States now available, make it possible to correlate these mounds in
different regions — the mima mounds of the Pacific Northwest, the
sandy “hogwallow” mounds of California, and the “pimple” (“gas” or
“soil”) mounds of the Gulf Coastal plain and continental interior —
into a form genus mima mound, eliminating “hogwallow” mounds in
clay and the deep-seated polygonal-earth structures of frozen ground.

Distribution. — Thus constituted, and as further described herein,
mima mounds are found to occur in 18 Western gopher-occupied states,
Fig. 1, and wholly within the distribution regions, Fig. 2, of the pocket
gophers, genera: Cratogeomys, Geomys and Thomomys, ** but only in
areas marginal for these underground rodent farmers. This restriction
leaves mima mounds unreported in 10 gopher-occupied states: 4 west
of Mississippi River, 3 Central, and 3 Southern states, all occupied here
and there by gophers living under optimum conditions. Mounds are
absent also in 20 Eastern states, where gophers are not present, giving

* This well illustrated article should be consulted in order to gain
a good idea of the appearance of the mounds.

** Sub-family Geominae of the Family Geomidae.

5

30 states without mima mounds. Scanty information shows gophers,
but no mima mounds, present in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Mounds, thus, occur in 18 out of 30 western states of the United States
and Canada that are occupied by gophers.

Mounds are reported on a coastal terrace— uplifted shoreline — in
Baja California, Mexico. Reports of somewhat similar mounds in Ar¬
gentina, Australia and Cuba have not been investigated by this writer.
R. T. Hill’s (1906) reference many years ago to mounds on the High
Plateau of Mexico has not been confirmed and the mounds noted by
him may have been of other type.

The larger number of the known mima mound colonies is found in
soil on little-consolidated deposits of Pleistocene age. A lesser number
is found in soil on Recent deposits. Many, however, lie in soil developed
on older rocks, including Paleozoics, where they and the soils are
associated with erosional surfaces of Pleistocene to Recent age, now
inactive or in old age of the erosion cycle.

Mima mounds are widely reported from nearly all those major
non-desertic geomorphic units (Fenneman 1931) of the West that are
of relatively smooth topography, and from meadows and glades in
some mountains. These, shown on Fig. 1, are: 1, Puget Sound Basin;
2, Columbia Plateaus; 4, Central Valley or Trough of California; 5,
Pacific Border terraces; 6, Rocky Mountains; 8, a. b, Central Lowland
areas; 9, Ozark-Ouachita Region; 10, Ozark Plateaus; 11 and 12, Gulf
Coastal Plain; 15, Various mountains; 3, a, b, c, scattered locations in
Basin-and-Range province. On river terraces they occur, 13, below the
surface of the Great Plains, (and probably, 7). The deep watertables
and porous surface soils of the Great Plains itself, however, seem not
to have required the gophers to build mounds, although these rodents
are numerous in parts of the region. Mounds have been reliably re¬
ported or seen by the writer on more than 20 different types of geo¬
morphic units, as: terraces of sea and river, entrenched alluvial fans,
till surfaces, stabilized deltaic plains, beach plains, elevated or drained
parts of lake basins, plateaus and mesa tops, slowly eroding hill slopes,
level to steep mountain “meadows” (various units) and baselevelled
surfaces in old mountain areas.

Mounds are absent in the United States from areas of unleached
heavy clay soils, as floodplains of lowland rivers. Mounds of loose
sandy soil occur near Stockton, California, where the soil of the sur¬
rounding plain is a lightly cemented, more clayey adobe. In forested
areas, mounds seem to have been built only in open glades, but occur
where a forest climax growth has developed on them, displacing the
gophers.

Young mima mounds are reported on slopes up to 15°, 20° or even
30° on mountain meadows, but are most common and in general older
on slopes of slight inclination, as 1 to 5 feet per mile in Texas and
Louisiana. They occur in all climates from humid to semi-arid, but
seem to be least abundant in the latter. Mounds have not been reported
from deserts, probably due to instability of the soil, although pocket
gopher species occur in some fully arid regions. Mounds are absent east
of Mississippi River, including a part of the Middle West, where gophers
occur. Mounds are absent also in the great Eastern Forest Region, al-

6

though gophers occur in open areas there in the eastern Gulf of Mexico
states, Fig. 2.

Mima mounds are today typically occupied by pocket gophers, one
to a mound in non-breeding seasons. Yet Mima Prairie, type mound
locality, is not now occupied (Dalquest and Scheffer 1942), being one of
several areas of abandoned mound prairies. When too severe living
conditions arrive, gophers are known to abandon mounds, as when the
Texas harvester ant, Atta texana, takes up residence or when the
mounds are entirely flooded by fresh or salt water, as at Locality
area 12 b, Fig. 1, (contra R. L. Dietz 1945). If a mound prairie were
drained, and the watertable fell, the intermound soils would in many
cases have become too dense for gopher cultivation. Some mound
colonies now have no gophers, but no large regions containing mima
mounds seem to be known without gopher occupation of most of their
mound prairies. Other . occupants, as ground squirrels, badgers, skunks,
and ants, are thought to be post-mound invaders, none of these except
perhaps the ant having a known soil-gathering habit.

FIG. 3, A, B.

Fig. 3. Hypothetical Cross-Sections of Mima Mounds in Relation
to Original Ground Surface and Soil.

M

3A. (above) Sandy Soil Originalfly with Smooth Surface. Gl, original
ground surface. G2, surface after mature mima mound (M) is built.
B, volume added; EE, volume extracted. OF, original gopher-farm
area, soil now thoroughly reworked and original structures destroyed.
SI, original base of soil, S2, present base of soil, assuming weathering
has proceeded in depth, aided by deep tunnelling under mound.

3B. (below) Sandy Soil with Rill Sculpture. M, gopher enlarging
rill divide by extraction from rill valleys, YV. R, possible core of
unweathered gopher-resistant rock retaining original pre-soil structures,
or incompletely reworked rill divide in new mounds, B and OF as in 3A.

M

7

The building of mima mounds diversifies the environment as to
topography, soils (C. C. Nikiforoff 1941), drainage, soil moisture,
groundwater, vegetation, and indigenous and transient animal popula¬
tions.

Mound Structure. — Mima mounds form unnatural, usually biconvex
thickenings of the upper, surface soil zone, Fig. 3A. This is believed,
as M. R. Campbell (1906) pointed out long ago, to indicate mound
origin by accumulation rather than by erosion or other removal of
the soil.

Mounds are typically structureless, except for (1) tunnels, nests
and dens of animals, and in some areas (2) thin basal (in some cases
post-mound) soil claypan and hardpan layers, (3) basal and peripheral
concentrations of gravel or cobble, (4) possibly in a few cases, internal
pre-mound and sub-mound structures (R. J. Arkley 1948), Fig. 3B, not
yet surely identified in the field. Such hypothetical pre-mound rem¬
nants, as long as preserved from destruction by tunnelling, would be
partly or wholly covered unconformably by gopher-transported soil
materials and, if gopher-resistant, could long retain original internal
composition and structure. The only stratification, flow lines or cross¬
bedding to be found— -if at all — in mima mounds should be in such
bodies.

Fossils have not been reported from mima mounds, but may pos¬
sibly be found in internal pre-mound structures, until destroyed with
these by soil and rodent activity. Indian burials and artifacts have been
reported in California from a few mounds in mound colonies once
forested and abandoned by gophers. Boulders too large for gophers to
eject, reported “high on mounds”, may have been as yet not covered
in mound building, elevated by frost heaving, or exposed in abandoned,
eroded mounds. This feature requires further field investigation.

Sub-mound soil hardpans may have large sub-central underground
dimples or openings which allow groundwater to rise into the mound
above during very wet seasons, temporarily producing a central area
of quicksand (C. C. Nikiforoff 1941), but mima mounds do not show
the deep pipe-like structures which some have expected, based on as¬
sumption of mound formation by upward seepage of water. Nor do they
show any evidence of extrusive action while growing, nor extrusive,
nor flow, structure. The hardpan dimples, collapsed nest chambers,
and dens of larger animals explain sub-central surface depressions
found on many mounds. Peripheral depressions of inter-mound surfaces
are common at the margins of growing mounds and must be due to
horizontal underground transfer of material to the mound (Koons 1948)
by the animal.

Patterns of Occurrence of Mounds in Colonies. — In mound colonies,
mounds are often roughly equally spaced but by no means precisely so
— in many places very irregularly spaced in some directions. They occur
in more regular patterns of arrangement only where they are built on
pre-existing small elevations having, themselves, some regular pattern.
Most common in this class are rill divides, beach ridges, or low stabil¬
ized dune ridges. The sub-equal regularity of spacing of mounds and

8

their sizes, are reported (Dalquest and Scheffer 1942; V. B. Scheffer

1947, 1948) as closely similar to the sizes and patterns of occurrence of
individual gopher-farm areas where mounds are not present.

Circularity of Mound and Gopher Farm. — Although gopher tunnel-
systems commonly have a marked degree of rectilinearity at any one
time, Scheffer (1948) believes that, over a long period, the tunnel layout
will shift so that, on a long term basis, the rodent will farm mainly a
roughly circular area. This seems to be most marked in areas of margi¬
nal occupation conditions. There are indications that, where mounds
are well developed, feeding and tunneling activity occurs throughout
the mound in a season. Thus, individual mima mounds observed near
Aransas Pass, Texas, showed gopher activity in all parts of a large
circular mound during some period of not many weeks preceding Feb.

1948. The area of activity was marked by the many rain-eroded, hat¬
sized “hills” of sand piled over the ends of tunnels, Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Young mina mound occupied by pocket gophers.

Portion of mound (2 by 100 by 100 feet) on late Recent marshy
plain of cove between spits, Aransas Bay shore, at townsite of Aransas
Pass, Aransas County, Texas. More than 500 hat-sized gopher “hills”
eroded by winter rains with a few fresh ones. Photo, February 1948,
by Price.

In the two eye-witness accounts of mounds built in 5 to 17 years
(Koons 1948, T. L. Bailey 1923) in one of which the gopher was ob¬
served to be active throughout the period, the mounds were reported
as typical for their areas, which would mean oval to roughly circular
in shape.

Gopher Activity Without Mound Building.— Optimum soil and
terrain conditions for pocket gopher “farming” seem to he deep, porous,
sandy (W. B. Davis et al., 1938) to gravelly soil with good surface and
underground drainage. Here, plant roots penetrate deeply and the gopher
is limited in its solitary farming only by the radius of its customary
horizontal travel, which is that of mima mound radii, with only occasion-

9

ally, longer, reconnaissance journeys underground and a minimum of
surface foraging. Mima mounds are not built where the gopher lives
under optimum conditions. In much the larger part of its range, mima
mounds are not built.

Some Conditions of Mima Mound Building. — Where mima mounds
are present, living conditions for the rodent are marginal, although
improved by mound building. Here, before mounds were formed,
the roots of grasses and forbs (‘weeds”) were prevented from growing
deeply and so occupying a maximum underground volume of earth be¬
neath a surface area. Here, the “farm” was shallow and spread out in¬
stead of deep. Shallow root penertation in gopher-occupied regions is
chiefly the result of thinness of porous soil above clay, rock or shallow
ground- water. The North American gopher seems not to tunnel in dense
clay, although an Australian relative is reported to build mounds of clay,
suggesting a difference in food plants for the different genera.

The minimum vertical thickness permitting the gopher to tunnel,
obtain roots, and remain hidden from surface enemies is a few inches
more than the diameter of his small, chunky body — or as little as about
5 or 6 inches. Although controlled field investigation has been confined
in this item chiefly to a single gopher species, rise of the watertable to
as close as 4.0 to 4.5 feet below surface leads this species to build
mounds. Where the thickness of soil is less than some small limiting
value, it would seem that too great a horizontal radius of foraging
would be required for the rodent to secure adequate food without
mound building.

If the minimum volume of soil is in considerable part occupied by
dense bodies, small enough for the gopher to push along a tunnel, such
as gravel and small cobble stones, they will be pushed up and out of
the mound with the head and forelegs. If larger, they will be under¬
mined and allowed to settle to its base. Thus, the mound is cleared of
obstructions to tunneling.

An impenetrable barren surface layer such as a tightly packed
gravel pavement (as an eolian pavement, residual from the winnowing
of fines from gravelly soil) covering a suitable soil also prevents the
occurrence of optimum living conditions for the gopher, as at Rocky
Flat, Yakima County, Washington, (E. J. Larrison 1942), by severely
limiting plant growth. Here mounds have been built by transfer of
material from below the pavement through some original central break,
the pavement being observed to sag beneath the mounds.

On level-topped rocky mesas in California where the soil is only
a few inches thick, mima mounds have been observed with gopher
occupation. The mounds are — in some cases at least — more widely
spaced than where soils are thicker. This type of occurrence, reported
by Herrick C. Brown, indicates that the gopher transfers soil hori¬
zontally from as far away as necessary to build a mound.

Where such limiting conditions occur, the environment is marginal
for the rodent. Where suitable soils are found in the West in such
gopher-marginal conditions, and other conditions are not unfavorable
to gopher habitation and propagation, mima mounds are commonly

10

found, but only on surfaces where the soil is and has for a long time
been stable, that is, protected from excessive erosion or deposition.
Studies of such conditions do not yet permit a statement as to how
much suitable terrain remains in the West unoccupied by gopher
colonies or mima mounds.

Relatives of the rodent, such as the beaver and musk rat, have
highly developed, above- water, house-building habits suiting them to
life in conflict with water, the living quarters, however, being above
water and dry. The beaver is well adapted to living partly in water,
being a good swimmer.

Rodents in general construct nests, some of which, though not of
soil, are distinctly mound-like, as that of the pack rat of the Southwest
The pocket gopher, however, while customarily building a small, food-
supplied nest chamber in the earth near the center of his farm area,
does not show a mound-building ability until natural dispersion of the
young from the home nest, or other migration, brings individuals up
against marginal conditions. Enough is now known to state that the
pocket gopher develops a positive mound-building activity when faced
with certain types of marginal living conditions.

A mature mima mound has been built in 5 years and mound build¬
ing probably continues through more than a single gopher generation.
Hence, gophers live under some marginal conditions while improving
them.

Mechanism of Mound Building. — In searching for clues to the pre¬
cise mechanism of mima mound building by the gopher, the following
considerations enter strongly. The animal customarily shifts earth in
his tunneling by pushing with the forelegs and head. Upward transfer
of soil in large amount is shown by the sagging of the gravel pavement
on which extensive mound colonies are built at Rocky Flat, Washington.
Lateral soil transfer in bulk from intermound to mound areas is inferred
from (1) the aggregation into mounds of a thin soil from wide inter¬
mound areas on rocky mesa tops in California, (2) the characteristic
occurrence of marginal sinks widely observed at the edges of mounds
of the Gulf Coast in Texas by Koons, the writer and others, (3) from
the abnormal thickening of the soil layer in mounds, (4) from their
being built abundantly on surfaces of such gentle slope and poor drain¬
age that erosion can not have been effective in shaping them.

Visible records of the gophers shifting earth in variable quantities
are: (1) the ubiquitous “hills” or hat-sized piles of soil left on the sur¬
face over the ends of tunnels of lateral as well as vertical courses; (2)
back-fillings and plugs of soil constructed in tunnels, including (a) the
tunnel-end-plug located beneath each “hill”, (b) “ropes” of soil found
abundantly on ground surfaces where a snow cover has lately melted,
representing back-fillings of tunnels in snow, (3) and the second-story,
seasonal nest and food-storage mounds, (P. F. English 1932, pi. 9, widely
observed in the Gulf Coast and in Utah. These are, in Texas, 3 by 4
feet in plan by 2.5 feet high. They are found in many regions in central
locations on mima mounds in wet seasons of high watertables and are
rebuilt seasonally. Rain, wind and the hooves of heavy animals reduce
them. Predators doubtless dig into them.

11

The Wet-Season Nest-and-Storage Mound, — So far, the full range
of conditions controlling the building of the wet-season nest mound is
not known. It has not yet been reported from some extensive areas of
gopher and mima mound occurrence, V. B Scheffer not having seen
them in the Pacific northwest.

The normal nest chamber, with its food cache, is reported as charac¬
teristically central in position and either shallow or deep. The wet-
season mound is built on the ground surface vertically above the dry
season nest-chamber.

Attainment of Maximum Mound Heights. — The tabular mima mound
is in Texas usually no higher than the wet-season nest mound. In the
absence of observational records, the higher conical or domal mima
mound is thought to develop from the low tabular mima mound because
of the characteristic rise of the watertable under surface elevations,
especially in rainy seasons. Thus, the watertable does not pass level
under a hill of porous materials, nor does it lie at equal depths below
the surface of the hill at all points, but its curve tends to be flatter
than that of the hill surface. Then, the rainy -'Season watertable would
seem to rise centrally with the up-building of a mound and would tend
to cause a continuance of mound building until there was a sufficient
volume of plant-developing soil above high watertables to provide a
crop large enough — with existing food hoards -to carry the rodent
through the wet season. This phase should be fully investigated in the
field. Local groundwater elevation in mounds is reported from the
Stockton area, California, by J. L. Retzer (1946),

It has long been observed that there seems to be a maximum
height for mima mounds on any one mound prairie. While height control
is not yet fully understood, this height may vary with the size of the
species and with the age of the mound-building activity in the area,
and be limited by the sub-mound rise of the watertable after rains.

The maximum height and volume limits may be influenced to some
extent by the volume of soil through which the energies of the rodent
carry him, and by a balance between mound-building activity and the
activity of external mound-destructive forces. If after a mound reaches
a certain height, the rodent no longer needs to enlarge the volume of
the “farm”, growth will probably cease.

The maximum in observed mound building is the Rocky Flat,
Washington, area, where extensive mound coalescence and probably
overlapping seems necessary to Larrison (1942) to account for the exten¬
sive covering of the gravelly pavement to form a terrace of soil over
wide areas. Similar terrace building without a well defined reference
bed is suggested by the topography of some hummocky bog or swamp
terrain, such as is reported from California (J. L. Retzer letter of Oct.
1948) and as has been observed in Kleberg County in a few areas on
the abandoned, poorly drained flat of the Ingleside Pleistocene lagoon
floor. The lagoon floor is there covered by a thin veneer of wind¬
blown sand in the present dry sub-humid region along Baffin Bay,
Texas.

Colonial Soil Mounds and Their Origins. — The sub-equidistant oc¬
currence on extensive grassland prairies of colonies of small, low,

12

roughly symmetrical mounds of soil unaccompanied by other, irregular
and larger soil elevations would, it seems, be capable of association
with, and possibly only with: (1) habitation areas or structures of ani¬
mal colonies of a single type, (2) dunes of sand-sized particles, or (3)
relief features resulting from volume changes (swelling and contract¬
ing) in relatively homogeneous bodies of soft, adhesive (coherent) sur¬
face or near-surface materials, such as heavy clays. The structures of
the United States known to fall within these specifications are: A.
Mima mounds, B. Dunes, C. Hogwallow mounds in heavy clay soils,
D. Polygonal earth mounds of soils underlain by seasonally partly melted
ground-ice masses. Other well known small-mound * groups fail in some
items of the definition.

Mima mounds are not features of heavy clay soils in the United
States, and are in many regions characteristically larger and much less
regularly distributed and less thickly set than hogwallows in clay.
Dunes and mima mounds lack the deep-seated, inverted pyramidal struc¬
ture of polygonal earth mounds, lately invoked by Pewe (1948). Mima
mounds are not found in active growth above ground-ice. Gophers do
not range into the areas of permanent ground ice.

Similarity of shapes, sizes and patterns of distribution as observed
on aerial photographs, and the characteristic structureless, bi-convex
form of the soil body of the mounds, indicate that the mound colonies
here mapped (Fig. 1) are all of mima type.

Hypotheses of Mound Origin. — The vital facts in the occurrence and
character of the completed mounds are (1) the absence of mima mounds
beyond the range of the pocket gopher, especially their absence east of
Mississippi River, (2) the common presence of the gopher in the mounds,
(3) the abnormal thickening of the soil in the mounds and its high
porosity and permeability as compared with the intermound soils, (4)
the absence of internal structure of a geological nature, (5) mound
occurrence under such a wide variety of conditions that, if they are
of a single type, no single physical agency may be involved, (6) their
occurrence as local widenings and heightenings of such plains-summit
features as rill divides, inactive beach ridges, and stabilized dune
ridges, (7) their growth in areas where and while no upward propulsive
force exists in the ground, as where regular, periodical observations
of water levels under mima mound prairies were made in deep dug
wells by Koons (1948 and oral statement).

We have the testimony of two eyewitness observers, F. C. Koons
(1948) and the resident of Colorado County, Texas, interviewed by
T. L. Bailey (1923), as to the actual growth of mounds in a few years,
from an observed small beginning with gopher occupancy in one case,
and from newly leveled land in the other.

We have also the report by many observers, the writer included,
of the occurrence of a developmental series of mounds where the
gopher is the only large soil-disturbing agent; also the evidence of the
occurrence of the mounds characteristically where conditions for gopher
occupation are, or demonstrably have been, marginal for the rodent.
Here, the mounds seem to have been built by the rodent chiefly because

* Prairie dogs and ants build craterlets, not mounds.

13

the soil was too thin above relatively impenetrable materials, or above
groundwater, for the growth of the plants on which the gopher depends
and because of an impaired under-drainage for soil waters. These asso¬
ciations are too specific, too widespread within the range of the pocket
gophers, and cover too many different geologic and geomorphic condi¬
tions for the mounds to have multiple origins or to be the result of
coincidence. These conditions also rule out beyond any reasonable doubt
agency by any other organism, as (a) other rodents having quite differ¬
ent habits, food and living requirements, (b) ants, or (c) human
aboriginees. The aboriginees had just as definite camp-site require¬
ments as have the lesser animals.

The writer believes that each agency for mima mound origin
previously advanced, except that of the pocket gopher, can be shown
to be inadequate on internal evidence. For example, the mounds are
not sections of rill divides (F. A. Melton 1929, pp. 126-7, fig. Ill; 1935)
but are elevations on and widenings of them; also they occur numer¬
ously where rills can not have formed and without rill patterns; they
are not accumulations of atomospheric materials alone, or around or in
(J. L. Rich 1934) bunch vegetation, because they lack streamlined
form, dune structure, the patterns of dune occurrence, and the size
grading of dune particles (Melton 1929). They also occur in humid
areas where the typical vegetational growth is not bunchy. Human
artifacts and remains rarely occur in the mounds, possibly in part be¬
cause of gopher activity, and are not characteristically found in adja¬
cent terrain, as they would be if the mounds were of aboriginal origin;
ants do occupy mima mounds, one colony to a mound, and ants do
raise small amounts of materials to the surface, but can scarcely ac¬
cumulate soil from radial distances of scores of feet, as do pocket
gophers; mima mounds occur where no deposition under water has
been possible, as on the upper reaches of Criterion Summit, Pike’s
Peak, and Table Mountain, even on slopes up to 30°. No trained observer
has as yet offered a critical separation of the mounds here termed
mima into sub-types related or supposedly related to origin by different
agencies, nor is evidence known to the writer on which such a separa¬
tion might be made.

The proponents of the various hypotheses and suggestions opposed
to gopher origin have not attempted on any critical grounds to explain
the absence of mima mounds east of Mississippi River or otherwise
beyond the gopher’s range. If such agencies operate in humid climates,
they should be able to form mima mounds on the Atlantic coast, includ¬
ing the sandy Tertiary outcrop of the coastal plain, the rolling hills of
the piedmont, and the many grassy mountain meadows with porous
soils found in the Alleghanies. The pocket gopher and the mima mounds,
on the other hand, are both characteristic of the West, not of the East.
The few areas occupied by the gopher east of Mississippi River seem
to offer optimum conditions, not requiring mounds, as also large areas
in the West, such as the High Plains with its deep sandy soils.

Ages of Mima Mounds. — Known and supposed ages of new mima
mounds range from the recorded 5 years of Koons (1948) and 17 of
T. L. Bailey (1923) for first attainment of mature form, to figures
estimated for the attainment of the associated vegetational climax

14

formation, 50 to 60 years, and to the 1,000-2,000 years (C. C. Nikiforoff

1941) estimated as necessary to develop some California intra-mound
soil hardpans supposed to be of post-mound age.*

Maximum possible mima mound ages are set by the times of stabili¬
zation of the erosional and depositional surfaces on which they are
found. These surfaces date from middle to late Pleistocene, and early to
late Recent, and are commonly estimated to range from 2,000 to 200,000
years in age.** The profuse varietal development within the Geominae,
and the many local races restricted by terrain barriers of relatively small
size — as clay-soil areas — argue for substantial time intervals for gopher
occupancy of the areas of present mound colonies.

Fluctuation of Mound-Building Activities in Recent. — Partly un¬
published data indicate that the present semi-arid and dry sub-humid
regions of the southwestern United States from the coast of the Gulf
of Mexico (W. A. Price 1944) to the Grand Canyon region (J. L. Hack

1942) have undergone a cyclic climatic change from arid to moist to
dry, with superimposed pluvial epicycles and corresponding fluctua¬
tions of the watertable in the past 8,000 years. The longer moist period
is roughly estimated to have extended in Texas from about 2,500 B. C.
to about A. D. 600, with a short one from about A. D. 1100 to 1400. Such
widespread changes in watertables on lowland plains as accompanied
these changes must have affected the gopher colonies so that mound
building activities fluctuated markedly during the late Recent, with
periods of cessation. Concurrent changes probably also occurred in the
adjacent more moist climatic regions of today. Some areas of early
mound building may not be marginal today and might not today require
mound building. Also, some grassland areas became covered by forests so
that gophers disappeared. They may not have returned to all of these.
Such events may have caused some of the few exceptional occurrences
of mima mound prairies not today occupied by gophers in some of
which the original marginal conditions responsible for mound building
are now obscure, as at Mima Prairie, itself, the type locality of the
mounds.

Present Status of the Mima Mound Problem. — (1) Mammalogists
and ecologists may not be fully satisfied with the conclusions and
geological interpretations here presented. All doubts as to origin can
be settled by placing families of gophers in experimental tracts in
various marginal situations, and charting mound building under de¬
tailed observation and controlled conditions. Doubtless this will be

* Some mima mounds near Stockton, California, show Indian oc¬
cupation and burials. The mounds were once heavily wooded and were
presumably then abandoned by gophers. Indian skeletons in the mounds
lie under a zone of carbonate concretions at 4 to 12 inches depth. This
situation indicates considerable antiquity for the burials and the age of
Indian occupation has been roughly estimated by its students at 3,000
to 10,000 years (J. L, Retzer 1946, p. 365). The stage of adobe cementa¬
tion in the Stockton soil of the plain in contrast with that of the mound
suggests to Price that the mounds are as old or almost as old as the soil.

** The writer does not hazard a guess as to actual maximum mima
mound ages. Low sandy beach ridges of mid-Beaumont age (Yarmouth
interglacial?) have lasted possibly 200,000 years. Mima mounds rest on
them, being of the same order of size and resistance.

15

done if it is judged to serve an economic purpose. Underground
gopher movement and tunneling might be followed by the use of
delicate listening devices. (2) The chief geological hypotheses of recent
decades opposed to animal origin have been those of multiple origins,
including rill-divide segmentation, and bunch-vegetation holding soil
residuals and accumulating atmospheric fines. These problems can be
further investigated (a) by multiple gopher-mound-building experi¬
ments in the various parts of the country occupied by the mounds
here correlated into the mima type, (b) by searching for and, if found,
investigating the patterns of occurrence of hypothetical colonies of
round to oval rill-divide segments, especially if found east of Mississippi
River, or in Canada, where gophers are scarce or not present, (c) by
searching for bunch-grass or brush-held mounds in extensive colonial
development in those regions. (3) The ant-agency idea may be difficult
to investigate because of the great variety of ants and the probable
slowness of growth of their accumulations. The only known present
proponent of this idea (P. Viosca 1944) has not developed it in publi¬
cation but believes * that Atta texana, the leaf cutting ant of Texas, is
the only type likely to have built mounds of this size. (4) The possible
influence of seasonally shallow watertable in causing the growth of
mounds above the initial low tabular structures may be studied in the
field. (5) The tolerance of different species of gophers for varying
shallow positions of the watertable may be further investigated; also
(6) the influence of the activities of other rodent occupants of mima
mounds on mound size where they alone occupy them. (7) Detailed
shallow subsurface investigation of a few localities in East Texas, in¬
cluding mima mound prairies, where the writer and E. T. Dumble
(1918, pp. 273, 174) observed tiny craterlets growing by ground-water
seepage, with small amounts of petroleum and natural gas, might be
made.

Some of the above projects give promise of useful results, others
are suggested for the benefit of those who will be reluctant to accept
the mound correlations here made or to abandon, formerly held
hypotheses.

It is thought that the varying conditions found in the soils of
mima mounds and the adjacent plain or slope, and differences in the
continuity and position beneath the mounds of lower soil horizons
may be explained on the basis of the pocket gopher hypothesis, if they
are carefully investigated by sectioning or auger boring, and if the
concept of the probability of long-continued slow growth of some
mounds be weighed against possible short time growth of others, in
relation to the progress of soil development. There may also enter into
the soil problem possible fluctuations of climate during the life of the
mounds as topographic features; also fluctuations of gopher occupation.

CONCLUSIONS

This article is too brief for a full consideration of all the results
of the study completed by the writer. The abstract and the boldfaced
matter under the headings: “Circularity of mound and gopher farm”,

* Personal communication. Ants are said not to move earth hori¬
zontally for significant distances.

16

“Gopher’ activity without mound building”, and “Some conditions of
mima mound building” present the more important conclusions of the
study. Further studies of the development of the associated soils and
vegetational formations will probably yield valuable results in dating
maximum ages of mound colonies. Proponents of the opposed hypotheses
of physical agency have lately based their contentions on the belief
that the correlation of regional mound occurrences here made is faulty,
but have not as yet shown valid sub-types of mounds to be separated
from those here grouped into a single type, mima.

LITERATURE CITED

Arkley, R. J. — 1948 — The mima mounds. Sci. Monthly (Comments and
Criticism) 66(2): 175-6.

Bailey, T. L. — 1923 — The geology and natural resources of Colorado
County (Texas). Bull. Univ. Texas 2333: 163 pp., map.

Campbell, M. R. — 1906 — Natural mounds. J Geol. 14: 708-17.

Dalquest, W. W. and V. B. Scheffer — 1942 — Origin of mima mounds of
western Washington. J. Geol. 50(1): 68-84.

Davis, W. B., Ramsey, R. R. and J. M. Arendale, Jr. — 1938 — Distribution
of pocket gophers (Geomys breviceps) in relation to soils. J. Mamm.
19(4): 412-18.

Dietz, R. S. — 1945 — The small mounds of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Sci.,
n. s., 102(2658): 596-7.

Dumble, E. T. — 1918 — Geology of East Texas. Bull. Univ. Texas 1869:
viii, 388 pp., maps.

English, P. F. — 1932 — Some habits of the pocket gopher, Geomys
breviceps. J. Mamm. 13: 126-32.

Fenneman, N. — 1931 — Physiography of Western United States. McGraw-
Hill, xiii, 534 pp., map.

Hack, J .T. — 1942 — The changing physical environment of the Hopi In¬
dians of Arizona. Peabody Mus. Pap. Harvard Univ. 35(1): xxii,
85 pp.

Hill, R. T. — 1908 — On the origin of the small mounds of the Lower
Mississippi Valley, and Texas. Sci., n. s., 23: 704-6.

Koons, F. C. — 1948 — The sand mounds of Louisiana and Texas. Sci.
Monthly 66(4): 297-300.

Larrison, E. J. — 1942 — Pocket gophers and ecological succession in Wenas
Region, Washington. The Murrelet, 23(2): 34-41.

Melton, F. A. — 1929 — Natural mounds of northeastern Texas, southern
Arkansas, and northern Louisiana. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. (Univ.
Bull., n. s., 456) 2:109-16.

1935 — Vegetation and soil mounds. J. Geol. 25(3); 430-3.

Nikiforoff, C. C. — 1941 — Hardpan and microrelief in certain soil com¬
plexes of California. U. S. Dept, of Agr. Tech. Bull. 745: 46 pp.

Pewe, T. L. — 1948 — Origin of the mima mounds. Sci. Monthly 66(4):
293-96.

Price, W. A. — 1944 — Greater American deserts. Proc. Trans. Tex. Acad.
Sci. 27:166-70.

Retzer, J. L. — 1946 — Morphology and origin of some California mounds.
Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. America 10: 360-67.

17

Rich, J. L. — 1934— Soil mottlings and mounds in Northeastern Texas as
seen from the air. Geogr. Rev. 24: (4) 576-83.

Scheffer, V. B. — 4947- — The mystery of the mima mounds. Sci. Monthly
65(4): 283-94.

1948 — “Mima mounds: a reply” (Discussion). J. Geol. 56(3): 231-234.
Viosca, P., Jr.— 1944 — Distribution of certain cold-blooded animals in
Louisiana in relation to the geology and physiography of the state.
Proc. La. Acad. Sci. 8: 47-62. In Symposium: Distribution of flora
and fauna of Louisiana in relation to its geology and physiography,
same, pp. 11-73.

SOUTHWESTERN WATER RESOURCES— THEIR
CONSERVATION AND UTILIZATION

Morgan H. Rice
Assistant Vice President
Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas

In view cf the scientific nature of this subject, its breadth and
depth, and its significance to the future growth and development of the
Southwest, it gives me, a mere layman, considerable pause in attempt¬
ing to discuss it before this group. The late Will Rogers had a favorite
saying “All I know is what I read in the newspapers.” Paraphrasing
that saying, All I know about the water resources of the Southwest and
their management is what I have read in the excellent reports of such
groups as the Board of Water Engineers, the United States Geological
Survey, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Corps of Army Engineers, and
the Soil Conservation Service. The information in these reports has
given me an appreciation of the problems with which we are dealing
and has aided in interpreting the significance of my observation about
the condition of our soils and the use of our water resources.

It is generally true, I think, that we do not appreciate the signifi¬
cance of a vital resource until we begin to visualize a scarcity. When we
face that possibility, we are sometimes aroused to the point where we
try to do something about it.

In the Southwest, few physical factors have been or will be more
important than water in defining our developmental pattern. In the
past, many people have been profligate in their use of water because
supplies seemed inexhaustible. The very abundance of water seemed
to obviate the need for its conservation. During the past half century,
however, area after area has experienced a scarcity of water. The
diminishing water supply in relation to requirements is the outgrowth
of the rapidly increasing population and extensive soil erosion, which
has reduced the absorptive capacity of our soils, silted up our streams
and reservoirs, and increased the intensity of floods. Fortunately, the
several bodies of which I spoke earlier, through years of study, research,
and investigation, have assembled basic information about the nature
and extent of our water resources, and the need for their conservation,
and in some areas have contributed much toward the solution of the
immediate problems.

At the outset we should realize that precipitation, which is the

18

source of all water, is affected by such varying factors as altitude,
mountain barriers, prevailing winds, and the location of an area in
relation to other land masses and to bodies of water. In the Southwest,
we derive the major portion of our precipitation from the air masses
which form over the Gulf of Mexico because we are shut off by the
Rocky Mountains from the moisture-bearing winds of the Pacific. This
condition determines the regional as well as the seasonal distribution
of rainfall. During the winter months, air pressure over this region is
generally higher than over the Gulf, causing an outward movement
of winds which are displaced by cold and relatively dry air from
Canada; in the summer, moisture-laden winds from the Gulf move
inward over the land mass. Since these winds move north and westward
up the several river basins and deposit their moisture as they come in
contact with colder air masses, the largest amount of precipitation an¬
nually occurs in the eastern part of the region and diminishes at a
fairly uniform rate from about 60 inches in eastern Louisiana to 10
inches or less in parts of western Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The
seasonal variation in rainfall is most pronounced in arid western areas
and smallest in the humid eastern areas. The maximum occurs gener¬
ally in July and December in the land area adjacent to the coastline
from New Orleans, Louisiana, to Houston, Texas; during the winter
and spring months in north Louisiana, eastern Texas, and Oklahoma;
and during the middle or late summer in most of the western areas.
Even where the annual precipitation is adequate, its seasonal distribu¬
tion often creates serious problems with respect to the management of
water supplies and the production of crops and livestock. The concen¬
tration of rainfall in relatively short periods results in excessive mois¬
ture and heavy runoff with consequent floods at one season and a
serious deficiency of water at another.

Basic to an understanding of our water problems is a knowledge
of how water is stored for future use and what causes the loss of so
much of the precipitation.

Rainfall is distributed into a number of channels. A portion is
carried away immediately by streams and rivers; another portion is
absorbed into the upper layers of the earth, where it will be available
for plant growth; while a smaller amount filtrates far below the surface
to become a part of ground water supply.

That portion of precipitation reaching streams and rivers is called
surface water. Its extent is determined by the intensity of rainfall, by
the rates of evaporation and transpiration which prevail in an area, and
by the absorptive capacity of the land, which is influenced by its
slope, the nature of its cover, and soil structure. Because of the differ¬
ences in rainfall and physical conditions, the amount of runoff varies
widely in the several sections. It declines from east to west, falling
from an annual average of about 20 inches in the extreme eastern por¬
tion to less than one inch in parts of the western area. In Louisiana,
where annual precipitation averages around 55 inches . and high hu¬
midity reduces evaporation and transpiration, the runoff amounts to
about one-third of precipitation, but in the western portion, where both
rainfall and humidity are low, less than one-tenth of the rainfall reaches
the streams and rivers.

19

The southwest region may be divided into three major surface
water areas. From the standpoint of total runoff, the most important is
the area drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, which covers
most of Louisiana, Oklahoma, and northern Texas. It includes the Ar¬
kansas, Red, Ouachita, and White Rivers and their tributaries, as well
as the lower stretches of the Mississippi, and comprises about 25 per¬
cent of the total Mississippi drainage area.

The second surface water area is the Western Gulf Basin, which
covers the southwestern corner of Louisiana, all of Texas except the
northern portion, and the southeastern quarter of New Mexico. This
basin includes the nine principal Texas rivers emptying into the Gulf
of Mexico and is the only major surface water area falling entirely
within the Southwest.

The third area, which includes Arizona, northwestern New Mexico,
and a large section to the north and west is drained by the Colorado
River and its five major tributaries. Like the Mississippi, the major
portion of its flow is derived from areas outside the Southwest.

Stream flow records indicate that many streams in the Southwest
either go dry in some seasons or that their flow drops to quantities in¬
sufficient to meet water requirements. At other times the flow increases
to such an extent that severe flood damage occurs. To correct this
situation and to make possible a fuller utilization of water, many areas
have built storage facilities to aid in the regulation of stream flow, to
store flood waters for use during seasons when the natural flow is
inadequate to meet their needs, and in some instances to supply water
for irrigation and hydroelectric power.

The impounding of flood waters in storage reservoirs is compara¬
tively new in the Southwest. Yet, since the construction of Bachman
Lake near Dallas in 1902-03, thirty-four major storage facilities have
been constructed in Texas, with a total capacity of more than twelve
million acre feet. Of this total, twenty-five are single purpose reser¬
voirs: fifteen are used to supply municipal and industrial requirements;
four, for the development of power; and two each for irrigation, recrea¬
tional, or flood-control purposes. The remaining nine, including the
larger reservoirs, have multiple uses. Numerous dams are now under
construction or plans for them are being formulated.

Rainfall and surface water are supplemented in many areas by
water drawn from underground sources. Over a very long period,
precipitation filters down through the soil profile and great stores of
water collect in strata of absorptive materials far below the earth’s
surface. Frequently, these underground reservoirs extend over wide
areas and, in some instances, move horizontally through the absorptive
strata, generally flowing in the same direction as surface streams. A
portion of this underground supply is discharged through springs and
seeps, but, in general, this natural loss is balanced by the downward
filtration of water from the surface, and water tables remain stationary
if undisturbed.

The large ground water supply in the arid portions of the South¬
west made possible the development of those areas and continues to
support their economic activity. Even in the portions of the region

20

where rainfall is adequate and runoff is large enough to meet most
demands, many municipalities and industries tap underground supplies
because the flow and quality of water from that source does not vary
as much as water in surface streams. Moreover, supplies from this
source are affected little by droughts, seldom vary in temperature, and
can be developed quickly and at relatively little expense. Some areas,
however, are unable to depend upon ground water as a source of supply
either because it is not available in adequate quantity or has a high
mineral content.

The Balcones fault zone, which extends in a belt of varying width
from a point northeast of Austin southwestward to the vicinity of Del
Rio, is one of the most productive sources of ground water in Texas. Ex¬
tensive underground reservoirs are fed by the perennial streams which
carry both rain and spring water down from the Edwards Plateau.
These spring-fed streams are estimated to add about 150,000 acre feet
per year to the fault zone reservoirs. The ground water of the fault
zone moves in a southeasterly direction, and the principal outlets from
the reservoirs are the series of large springs along the southern and
eastern edge of the zone. These springs are the sources of good-sized
rivers and creeks which furnish water to many towns and cities in
south Texas.

The underground reservoirs of the Coastal Plains are another im¬
portant source of ground water. Although there are a series of under¬
ground reservoirs within this major area, they do not appear to be
connected; and there are sections, such as the Lower Rio Grande
Valley, where underground supplies of usable quality do not exist. This
area extends from the Rio Grande eastward across the southern portion
of the United States and includes all of south and east Texas, as well
as Louisiana. Water from this source is used for irrigation in the
Winter Garden Area below the fault zone and for a considerable part
of the rice acreage near Houston. In addition, several coastal and eastern
Texas communities secure water from this source to fill most of their
public and industrial requirements.

In east Texas, the heaviest withdrawal of ground water occurs in
the Lufkin-Nacogdoches area where it is used to meet the needs of
Lufkin, Nacogdoches, and several smaller communities, as well as to
fill the large requirements of the paper industry located in the area.

In the High Plains, a large supply of usable ground water is found
in the layer of sands and gravels which cover most of the area just
below the surface and extends down to a depth of between 200 and 300
feet. This formation is underlain by a layer of older rock which also
contains deposits of water, but the water in this older formation is so
highly mineralized that it is unfit for most uses. Since the upper forma¬
tion has been eroded down to the bedrock on the eastern and western
boundaries and through the center along the Canadian River, it is cut
off from all underground streams which might bring water from the
Rocky Mountain Area, except possibly through the older rock layer.
The Texas Board of Water Engineers has stated that if water moved
upward through this layer of older rock into the upper layer of
sands and gravels, it would become highly mineralized. It has con-

21

eluded, therefore, that since the water in the upper formation is not
highly mineralized, the fresh water in this formation is supplied from
the rain and snow that fall on the surface. The greater part of the
precipitation in the area is lost through evaporation, transpiration, or
runoff, but a very small part does filter downward to the underground
pools.

Although ground water surveys have not been made in all areas
of the Southwest, it is known that important though small deposits of
ground water exist in other parts of the region. In Texas, there are
small supplies in the northern and eastern parts of the State. Ground
water supplies in the northern and western parts of Louisiana are gen¬
erally similar in character and extent to those found in eastern Texas.
The potentialities of ground water in New Mexico and Arizona have
not been explored completely, and the extent of known ground water
is very limited. In Oklahoma, meager to moderately abundant supplies
of water are obtained from underground sources, although much of
this water is highly mineralized, particularly in the more arid western
portion.

The available facts would seem to suggest that thus far few areas
in the Southwest have suffered from a deficiency in water supplies.
The development whose implications have not been given adequate
consideration is the tremendous increase in the demand for water.
Population growth, together with the greatly increased per capita re¬
quirements under modern living conditions, has been a factor in water
demand, but of much greater importance has been the rapid expansion
in the use of water for irrigated farming and for industrial purposes.
In Texas, for instance, water demands in the past 50 years have in¬
creased more than 7,000 percent, although population has increased
less than 300 percent. Requirements increased significantly during the
war and postwar periods as population shifted toward the urban areas,
industrial plants were established or expanded, and irrigated farming
was extended. The farming area under irrigation in Texas rose from
895,000 acres in 1939 to 2,400,000 acres in 1947. In some instances, the
water requirements of newly established industrial units are equivalent
to those of cities with a quarter to half a million people. In fact, these
developments have focused attention on the fact that withdrawals of
water have not been in accordance with the principles of best utiliza¬
tion. The removal of water from ground sources has been at such a
rapid rate that a decline in water levels or artesian heads has occurred
in many areas. The decline has been particularly marked in the High
Plains, Lufkin-Nacogdoches, and the Winter Garden areas, while the
reduction in artesian pressure in the Galveston area has permitted the
intrusion of salt into the supply, necessitating the development of a
new source. At the same time, it is estimated that over three-fourths of
the surface water has been allowed to escape into the Gulf. More¬
over, communities depending upon surface water have had difficulty in
securing continuous supplies and in maintaining storage facilities at
the constructed capacity because of the rapid silting of reservoirs.

The problems of water conservation and utilization are complex
and diverse. In its movement either above or below the surface, water
follows natural channels or slopes extending over wide areas, and fre-

22

quently several communities, states, or even nations are concerned with
a single source of supply. The problems are further complicated by the
multiplicity of interests found within each community and by the
great diversity of physical conditions encountered in many water supply
areas.

Upland farmers are interested in retarding the movement of water
across the surface of their fields in order to check the rate of erosion
and in retaining as large a portion as possible of the precipitation which
falls on the land so as to assure a supply of stored water for drought
periods. Farmers in lowland sections may be primarily interested in
preventing deposits on their land of silt and sand washed down from
the hills and in the improvement of surface and internal drainage.
Municipalities and industrial users are directly concerned with the
provision of an adequate supply of unpolluted and good quality water,
the prevention of floods, and the disposal of waste and unwanted water.
Operators of hydroelectric plants and water transportation facilities
are faced with the problems of maintaining a steady flow of water and
preventing destructive silting of lakes and streams.

In spite of the diverse and often conflicting interests, however, the
problems are interrelated and can best be solved if considered collec¬
tively. In order to assure that all interests will be attended, it is fre¬
quently necessary to approach these problems on a regional or even
national basis, which permits compromise of the divergent interests
and the coordinated conservation and development of the water re¬
sources.

A basic consideration in determining a feasible program should be
the relationship of water to the land, because it is on individual farms
and ranches that the first steps should be taken. The control of surface
water at its source is essential to the ultimate solution of virtually all
other problems of water conservation and control. Here, effective action
can be taken to retain increased proportions of precipitation in the
areas where it falls, reducing soil erosion and the rate of water runoff,
increasing the filtration of water to underground reservoirs, and aiding
in the prevention of floods, the silting of streams and reservoirs, and
the deposition of soil on lowland areas. The necessity of initiating
measures to achieve these desirable objectives is emphasized by the
steady deterioration of soil fertility through the years. Over large
areas of the region the protective cover has been stripped away, ex¬
posing the land to the beating action of rain and increasing the rate of
erosion. The runoff of water into streams and rivers has been speeded
up and flood damage has been intensified. Silting, which results from
this erosive process, has impaired navigation, partially filled many
storage reservoirs, and reduced the productivity of lowland fields on
which it was deposited.

Through the establishment of a coordinated soil conservation pro¬
gram on individual farms, it should be possible to bring about a mater¬
ial improvement in existing conditions within a reasonable period and
ultimately to provide for the solution of many basic problems. By
increasing the absorptive capacity of the soil through use of such con¬
servation measures as plowing under green manure crops, the use of
commercial fertilizers, or other measures which would improve the

23

structure and internal drainage of the soil, the rate of runoff and
erosion could be reduced. Where such measures are needed, the con¬
struction of terraces or diversion ditches, contour planting, and the
use of cover crops or the restoration of sod or forest cover on erosive
slopes would slow the movement of water across the land. The build¬
ing of farm ponds and tanks would reduce the volume of water enter¬
ing streams during periods of heavy rainfall and would provide an
additional supply of water for use on farms during dry periods. These
measures, in addition to conserving the available supply of water and
bringing about more efficient utilization, would be effective in increas¬
ing the volume of agricultural production. Moreover, such measures
would act to increase the downward filtration of water to underground
reservoirs. Erosion also would be reduced, minimizing the problem of
maintaining navigable streams and usable municipal water supplies.

Great progress has been made in the organization of individual
farmers into soil conservation districts and in supplying them with the
technical advice required to carry out a coordinated conservation pro¬
gram. Conservation measures have been established on a considerable
portion of the land in farms, and the effectiveness of these methods in
checking erosion and runoff, in improving the soil structure, in increas¬
ing land fertility, and in improving water utilization has been demon¬
strated clearly. The establishment of conservation measures on indi¬
vidual farms, however, is far from complete, and the need for expand¬
ing this program to cover the entire region is urgent. If the soil con¬
servation program in each district were coordinated more completely
with flood control, drainage, and water improvement work, the progress
of each program would be accelerated. While the job of conserving and
improving the utilization of soil and water must be started on indi¬
vidual farms, it is done most effectively when attacked on a watershed
basis.

Closely related to the problem of controlling surface water and
conserving the soil is the progressive depletion or deterioration of
ground water supplies. The effects of wasteful exploitation of these
resources in many areas have been intensified by the reduction in the
recharge of underground reservoirs, due to the removal of the native
cover and the deterioration of the soil structure. Although prolonged
periods of below normal rainfall have contributed to the decline of
ground water supplies in many areas, the resulting deficiency in re-
charge could have been offset partially during years of above average
precipitation if the downward filtration of surface moisture had been
increased. Even if the rate of recharge of ground supplies should be
increased through the application of soil conservation measures, it might
still be necessary in some areas to limit the withdrawal of ground water
if supplies are to be maintained permanently. Although it appears un¬
likely that the supply of ground water will be exhausted completely
in any area in the near future, continued declines in the water level or
artesian pressure may require the boring of progressively deeper wells,
which eventually may raise the cost of water withdrawal to prohibitive
levels. -

The large and expanding area of farm lands under irrigation has
created some serious problems with respect to water utilization and

24

conservation. In districts where irrigation is already established, prob¬
lems have arisen in regard to the efficient use of water. In some cases,
a portion of the inadequate supply is often wasted either through loss
from the irrigation system itself or through the unwise use of water on
the land; while in other instances, the productive capacity of the land
has been reduced by raising the water level or increasing the salt con¬
centration in the soil. Construction of improved irrigation systems
would reduce the loss of water through seepage and evaporation, and
the adoption of improved irrigation practices already known will direct
more water to plants and reduce losses in the fields. To solve this
problem completely, however, additional research is needed to discover
the water requirements of various crops and the yields derived with
varying applications of water. Additional careful study also is needed
of the mineral content of water used for irrigation and the effect of
these minerals on growing crops and land productivity.

Falling water levels in underground reservoirs, combined with the
tremendous expansion in water requirements, bring to the forefront
the necessity of increasing the downward filtration of water to under¬
ground pools and of controlling withdrawals of water from ground
supplies. They are also indicative of the extent to which the region
must depend upon surface streams to meet future increases in water
requirements. Under these circumstances, consideration should be given
to the problems of management and utilization of surface streams,
such as control of destructive floods, stabilization of stream flow, re¬
duction or elimination of pollution, and, where feasible, development of
hydroelectric power as a means of distributing costs and supplementing
the existing power resources.

A major problem is the recurrence of destructive floods, resulting
primarily from the concentration of rainfall within relatively short
periods. These floods which continue to cause tremendous loss of life
and property each year are produced chiefly by tropical or semitropical
storms which enter the southeastern portion of the area from the Gulf
of Mexico or across the northeast corner of the Republic of Mexico.

In that portion of the region lying east of the ninety-ninth meridian
drained by the Mississippi, floods are a serious problem each year, but
considerable progress has been made in their control. In the western
Gulf drainage area, destructive floods occur in the lower reaches of
the major streams on an average of once in every four or five years.
Reservoirs in the upper portions of these streams have reduced floods
somewhat, but these facilities have little or no effect on the flow re¬
sulting from heavy storms below the reservoirs. In the Colorado River
drainage area in the western part of the region, the construction of
reservoirs has about eliminated the danger of floods in the lower por¬
tions of the river.

Flood control works in the Southwest are of three general types:
storage reservoirs to impound flood waters for later release; channel
improvements to increase capacity or to facilitate water flow; and
levees to protect bottomlands and to hold the streams within relatively
narrow limits. Storage reservoirs generally are believed to provide the
most satisfactory method of control if the terrain permits their construc¬
tion and if the impounded waters can be put to multiple uses, thereby

25

reducing their costs. Moreover, their ultimate effectiveness depends on
the reduction of silting through soil conservation measures. Channel
improvement alone generally does not afford adequate protection from
floods, but this development has been a valuable and in some cases a
necessary supplement to other flood control measures.

Much can be done to increase the effectiveness of these flood control
methods if and when the comprehensive soil conservation practices are
put into effect on farms and ranches over the whole region. Supplemen¬
tary practices, such as construction of numerous detention reservoirs,
gully control structures, flood water diversions, revegetation of critical
flood and sediment areas, adoption of roadside erosion control measures,
and stream channel improvements, would aid in reducing the amount
of runoff or facilitate the movement of water in streams.

Another serious problem arising out of the irregularity of stream
flow is the provision of continuous supplies of water to meet the needs
of many municipalities, industries, and irrigation farmers. Frequently,
water users depending upon streams for their supplies find that the
flow of those streams drops to such low levels during extended periods
of drought that it is inadequate to meet their normal requirements or
that the quality of the water deteriorates to the point where it is unfit for
many uses. Since a considerable portion of the surface water of the
Southwest is allowed to escape into the Gulf each year, it appears
probable that the requirements of most communities could be filled if
the flood flow were stored for later use. Although many storage
reservoirs have been constructed in the region, it is becoming apparent
that many more may be needed if the stream flow is to be regulated
and an adequate supply of water assused. Successful control of stream
flow and maintenance of storage reservoirs, however, will depend in
part upon slowing the rate of runoff and increasing the infiltration of
water by the application of soil conservation measures.

Other associated problems relate to the control of stream pollution
resulting from the irregularity of water flow, and the development of
hydroelectric power. While time will not permit a discussion of them,
it should be stated that they deserve important consideration in the
formulation of plans covering the conservation and utilization of our
water resources.

In summary, let me say that a study of the water resources in the
Southwest and their utilization reveals disturbing trends. Ground water
resources in areas where they appeared inexhaustible have been used
with almost reckless abandon as population has increased, new indus¬
tries with large water requirements have been established, and farmers
have turned to irrigation as a means of increasing crop production.
During recent years of exceptionally heavy water consumption, water
levels in underground reservoirs have fallen lower and lower, indicating
that downward infiltration of water from the surface has been insuffi¬
cient to replace the large withdrawals. Numerous communities without
adequate ground water supplies turned to the construction of surface
reservoirs. These reservoirs have contributed greatly to the water sup¬
plies of the region, but with the passage of years it has been discovered
that their constructed capacity has been reduced significantly by rapid
silting. Associated with these developments have been: (1) the intensi-

26

fication of floods; (2) the silting of streams and channels resulting from
improper land use, increased water runoff, and soil erosion; and (3) the
increased pollution of streams and certain underground reservoirs. A
continuation of these trends which reflect waste and misuse of the
region’s water resources may mean that the Southwest will soon reach
the limits of its expansion and ultimately may even face a reduction
of its industrial activity and farm irrigation.

On the other hand, study of the water resources of the Southwest
need not lead only to a discouraging conclusion. Great potentialities for
the region are inherent in its water resources, provided a long-term
program of development, conservation, and proper utilization of water
is effected promptly. Most areas probably receive sufficient rainfall to
recharge underground reservoirs or at least to check the rate of decline
in water levels and to assure unusually large quantities of surface
water, provided maximum quantities of water are stored and properly
utilized.

The several State and Federal agencies have already completed
much of the foundation work for the development of a coordinated
water conservation program, and considerable progress has been made
in establishing soil conservation practices and the necessary surface
reservoirs. The steps taken thus far indicate that progress is being
made, but an objective appraisal also indicates that these steps repre¬
sent only segments of the broad problem of assuring adequate water
supplies for the Southwest.

The seriousness of the water problem and the importance of water
to the further growth of the Southwest emphasize the need for the
formulation and effectuation of a comprehensive program for the con¬
servation, management, and utilization of the region’s water resources.
There is perhaps no more important basic problem confronting the
people of this region today than the problem of its water resources.
The most effective results toward the solution of this problem can be
obtained only through the close cooperation and coordinated effort of
all interested groups working in harmony to achieve the common
objective.

INTERDEPENDENCE OF PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES IN THE ATOMIC AGE

J. W. Baldwin
University of Texas

In an address at the installation of the new President of the Univer¬
sity of Illinois on May 16, 1947, Chancellor Robert M. Hutchins of the
University of Chicago made the following pronouncements:1

It is principles, and everlastingly principles, not data, not
facts, not helpful hints, but principles which the rising genera¬
tion requires if it is to find its way through the mazes of to¬
morrow.

The American educational system mirrors the chaos of the
modern world. While science and technology, which deal only

1 “The Education We Need.” Henry Regnery Co., Chicago.

27

with goods in the material order, are flourishing as never
before, liberal education, philosophy, history, and theology,
through which we might learn to guide our lives, are under¬
going a slow but remorseless decay.

It would seem that Chancellor Hutchins holds with many the con¬
viction that the welfare, and perhaps, even the survival of humanity
depend almost exclusively upon the mastery of the humanities in gen¬
eral and the social sciences in particular. It would be impossible for
either the social scientist or the physical scientist to accept such an
appraisal of the importance of the social sciences. The social sciences
are indispensable as a factor in the solution of our problems, but the
same is true of physical sciences. 2

On the other hand, there is a strong tendency on the part of many
physical scientists to look with considerable disdain on the potentiali¬
ties of the social sciences as compared with those of the physical
sciences. The thesis of this treatise is that neither of these two subject-
matter domains has the key to the specific for all of our individual
and social ills, and that even both of them working independently can¬
not save society from dissolution, or disintegration, if not even extinc¬
tion.

It is not difficult to agree upon the fact that we do not now know
how to save ourselves from catastrophe, even in the face of the fact
that it seems that we are to serve as our own executioners. It may be
that we shall not be able to do so even when we join all of our forces
and facilities in a united effort to avert disaster. But such a plan
seems to promise more hopeful possibilities than any other that has
been suggested so far. It is worth giving a trial since the stakes are so
high and since we could not possibly make matters worse by doing so.

For more than two decades the writer of this paper has devoted a
considerable percentage of his time to an effort to increase the value
of the contributions of the social sciences through a closer correlation
of subject-matter and activities concerned with the individual disciplines
in this group of kindred sciences. Many others have been intensively
interested in this movement. It has centered chiefly in the correlation
of content and procedures in applied phases of social science. Those
who have worked on this project are beginning to realize greater re¬
turns on their investment than they had dared to hope for in a brief
span of years. Those who have devoted time and effort to this move¬
ment have discovered that even when the materials and techniques of
all of the social sciences are brought to bear upon the solution of
problems which are usually assumed to reside entirely within the
social science domain it is also necessary to draw heavily upon physical
science for additional knowledge and skills which they alone can
provide. This discovery helped to point up the need of a still broader
base from which to map the strategy for an attack upon problems in
every area of human concern.

Many of those who have been chiefly concerned with the physical
sciences in recent years have discovered the advantage of a closer

2 The term, physical sciences is used in this paper in its broadest conno¬
tation, and is assumed to include all of the sciences which deal with
material phenomena.

28

association of all of the physical sciences, especially those elements
known as the applied sciences, in their attempt to bring content and
methods from all of them to focus simultaneously on projects which
have heretofore been considered the concern of only one of the sub¬
divisions of this field. Like the social scientists they have been agreeably
surprised with the success achieved through such correlation. As a
result of the discovery of so many overlappings and supplementary
aspects of these individual disciplines a new term, general science, has
been adopted to designate the use of kindred aspects of these related
sciences in a unified approach to the solution of many problems which
did not yield to application of the materials and techniques of an iso¬
lated division of this area. But even when all of the physical sciences
are utilized in a unified attack on many such problems it has been
found necessary to utilize many aspects of the social sciences to supple¬
ment the contributions which the physical sciences can make; thus
further emphasizing the need for closer correlation of the physical
sciences with the social sciences.

The movement toward the simultaneous employment of materials
and techniques of the separate subject-matter areas in each of the two
broad fields has been delayed and hampered by the fear of many
specialists that the individual subject with which each is concerned
might lose its identity or at least be reduced to the status of handmaid
to some other science or combination of sciences. This is sure to delay
the adoption of a unified or correlated, and synchronized attack by
social and physical sciences on the urgent problems and issues which
threaten our very existence, and which cannot be resolved in the
absence of such cooperation. We seem to find ourselves more con¬
cerned about the welfare of our special subjects than about the welfare
of humanity.

It was necessary to set up fields for narrow specialization in order
to permit the specialist in each field to limit his territory to an area small
enough to make it possible for him to explore it intensively. We shall
continue to need many specialists who devote their entire energies to
one small segment of the total domain of the sciences. But the ten¬
dency to specialize narrowly has become too nearly universal. We need
many scientists who are trained to see the interrelationships, over¬
lappings, and supplementary aspects of all sciences, and who have a
command of the means for focusing the contributions of all these
sciences in a single undertaking simultaneously, irrespective of the
sources from which the contributions may be derived. It might not
be very far from true to say that we need a lot of trained people who
are specialists in things in general. At least one nation has been en¬
couraging this kind of training with grants and subsidies in recent
years because it is convinced that they could render a significant service
to the nation in peace and in war which could not be secured from a
combination of the contributions of narrow specialists. That does not
mean that narrow specialization is discouraged in any way.

In order that social and physical scientists may be able to work
cooperatively it is desirable that each try to understand the point of
view of the other. They have many things in common. Both are vitally
interested in the search for truth. Both try to be objective in their

29

procedures and conclusions. Both respect exact scholarship. They see
eye to eye in many other respects, probably in most of the essential
aspects. Where they differ it is more likely to be a difference in em¬
phasis on various elements of their ideals and practices.

For example let us assume that the social scientist is more con¬
cerned than the physical scientist about what Dr. Hutchins calls
principles, and that the physical scientist is more concerned about
data, facts and objectivity than he is about principles and social re¬
sponsibility. If these assumptions should be correct, and they very
likely are not altogether so, this would not mean that either has no
interest in any one of the factors named. It merely means that there
may be a difference in emphasis on some factors. An approach to better
understanding and more willing cooperation might be found through a
study of the values inherent in what is held most sacred by repre¬
sentatives of both fields. We would usually end up by concluding that
all factors are important and indispensable, if not of equal significance.

It may be that the physical scientist places a higher value on the
discovery of truth than on the application of his findings to the press¬
ing problems of society. It is well known that many social scientists
are weak at this point also. But perhaps they have better facilities
than some physical scientists for making such adaptations, especially
when implementation is to be made in the improvement of human re¬
lationships. But it would seem that it should not be difficult to reach
agreement on such a point as this if study of the matter is pursued to
its logical conclusion. All scientists usually find themselves in agree¬
ment when they push their investigations to the limit. But it is not
necessary to reach complete agreement in order to work cooperatively.
In many instances it is best for the specialist in physical science to
discover the truth with the assistance and sympathetic observation of
the social scientist, and then let the social scientist make the applica¬
tion with the assistance and interested observation of the physical
scientist.

In any case it is fatal to assume that the truth in itself will solve
our problems. It is misleading to quote the Master Teacher as having
said: “Ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free,”
without adding the qualifying clause with which he prefaced this half
of the sentence. What He really said in St. John, 8:31-32 was: “If ye
continue in my word, then ye are my disciples indeed; and ye shall
know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.” That the last
half of the sentence is wholly contingent on the first clause is indicated
by the fact that special stress is put on the word, then. Knowledge
of the truth without doing anything about it may even enslave us.
Knowledge of the truth is a sine quo non for doing something about
it. But it loses its value if we stop with the discovery of the truth.
Knowing the awful truth about the atomic bomb has not made us free.
In many instances a knowledge of the truth does nothing but scare
the daylights out of us.

How Can Physical and Social Sciences Pool Their Efforts^

There are innumerable ways in which the social and physical
sciences can unify and synchronize their efforts and resources to great

30

advantage to both groups and to society which is served by both. Only
a few examples can be cited in the limits of this paper.

As an example let us consider the desirability of securing freedom.
It seems that it is fair to assume that the physical sciences are better
equipped than the social sciences for furnishing us the mechanical
instruments and the technological devices to help us to achieve our
freedom from illness, privation, military aggression, and financial in¬
security, while the social sciences can probably contribute more to
achievement of freedom of speech, worship, and conscience. If physical
science can contribute more to the achievement of freedom it is likely
that social science can contribute more to the intelligent use of our
freedoms. There is not much to be gained from freedom which we do
not know how to utilize to the best advantage. It is possible to use our
freedom for our own destruction.

Physical science may be able to contribute more to raising the
standard of living, while social science may be able to teach us more
about how to live usefully and happily. Social scientists can attack the
problem of the causes of individual and group differences through study
and classification of motives, drives, instinctive tendencies, mores,
taboos, and so on, while the physical scientist will be able to attack
the problem through a study of genetics, physiology, biology, and other
sciences through the laboratory techniques which are characteristic of
research activities in that field. The natural sciences can provide a sci¬
entific basis from which the social scientist will be able to project his
further study of human relations. The natural sciences can shed some
new light on racial traits, individual differences, and human motives
as they are influenced by physiological variations, vitamin or other
food deficiency, climate, and several other factors. Men of good will
result in part from influences other than purely social phenomena.

It is not difficult therefore to understand how the social sciences
and the physical sciences can profitably cooperate in dealing with
such problems as relations between labor and capital, employment,
vocational guidance, industrial management, human engineering, war¬
fare, social control, adaptation to changed conditions, production and
consumption, agriculture, tolerance, human nature, conservation of
human and natural resources, security, mental hygiene, youth delin¬
quency, and improvement of heredity and environment. The list could
be extended almost indefinitely. Much of the cooperative research
by physical and social sciences should be sponsored by public funds
in order to make sure that the interest of society is served.

Not only do we find that social and physical sciences have much
in common in content and method, but an analysis of the nature of
several of the sciences discloses that several of them are both physical
and social sciences. To name only a few, the list would include agri¬
culture, geography, psychology, psychiatry, hygiene, military science,
industrial management, and commerce. In fact all science is one and
was earlier considered a single unit of knowledge. It has always been
helpful to look at problems from the point of view of several sciences
rather than from one only. In recent years the artificial walls between
subdivisions of the physical sciences and also those between individual

31

social sciences have become less distinguishable, and the same thing
is now happening to the wall between social and physical sciences.

Many of the most important discoveries in research in recent
years have occurred in the areas where the sciences merge or overlap.
Unfortunately some of inestimable importance to the social scientist
have come from the laboratories of the physical sciences without ad¬
vance notice, making it impossible for the social scientist to cooperate
in the implementation of the information to the best interest of all con¬
cerned. Often it happens that by the time the information becomes
available to the social scientist it has already been channeled into the
pursuit of unworthy objectives. We have been willing to pay dearly
for scientific production in warfare and have thus frequently caused
the results of findings to be used first for destructive purposes. We
need more research directed toward winning the peace. We must
achieve local, national, and international citizenship. Natural science
must find ways to assist social sciences in production of civic values
which the social scientist will be able to put to the best use. The
frontiers of knowledge are probably to be found at present in the areas
where social sciences approach nearest the domains of physical sci¬
ences. The applied sciences in all categories seem to offer the best
medium for cooperation among the several areas.

We must never forget that we live in a physical and social environ¬
ment neither of which would have any value without the other. Lack
of sympathetic understanding on the part of specialists in the two
fields can only lead to catastrophe. We cannot hope to agree on every
minute detail. But it will be easy to agree on broad, general principles,
objectives and procedures. We must work hand in hand in setting up
goals and in making procedures developed in one area available to
specialists in the other. Each can help the other to see the potentialities
and the significance, and even the dangers of discoveries. There is no
point in doing well what is not worth doing at all. By working to¬
gether it will be possible for all to devote their energies to worthwhile
undertakings without wasteful duplication. Too often the individual spe¬
cialist in social or physical science not only does not know what is going
on in the other broad field, but is unaware of what fellow specialists
in closely allied areas are doing. We cannot hope to build a better
world through the medium of isolated attacks upon our pressing prob¬
lems. Social welfare must from now on be the objective of all sciences.
We have available much valuable material which has not been col¬
lected and unified or integrated for practical application to social
problems. We need to put our findings together to acquire a total pic¬
ture with all of its implications, and potentialities. And we must never
permit our admiration for scholarship to cause us to lose our sense
of obligation for good citizenship. Contempt for other sciences and
other scientists must give way to an attempt to utilize all sciences and
all other branches of learning in a concerted effort to render unselfish
service to mankind. There will be enough honors to go around, if honors
should have any part in our aspirations.

On every hand we see signs of more and more willingness to co¬
operate in an effort to increase the contributions of each science and

32

each scientist, as well as those of the combined effort of all. Time is
pressing. Can we get our forces martialed in time? We must find
some defense for the Frankenstein which we have created in the form
of atomic bombs; and it will have to be in the realm of moral, social,
and spiritual values. Politics, and physical instruments of warfare are
not adequate. Both social and physical sciences must work cooperatively,
and rapidly.

It is fortunate that the sciences in both fields are learning to employ
procedures which previously were thought adaptable in only one or
the other area. Doctors and psychiatrists are using principles and pro¬
cedures from both fields. Employers are calling on both to furnish
information concerning prospective employees. In some instances the
employers are more concerned about moral and social equipment of
prospective employees than about their vocational preparation. They
soon learn that expensive equipment and machinery cannot function
properly in the hands of unprincipled men. Specialists in both fields
employ such procedures as the historical method, analysis and synthesis,
the observation method, the experimental method, the statistical treat¬
ment of data, casual-comparative method, and many kinds of testing
and evaluation. Every physical science has its historical origin and
evolution which the physical scientist must master. Every social science
has its physical environment and instruments which the social scientist
must utilize.

Someone has said that scientific research needs a soul. If so,
perhaps social science can contribute something here in return for a
body which physical science can provide. But physical science seems
to be rapidly finding a soul if it lacked one. The scientists who cre¬
ated the atomic bomb were the first to recognize its social or anti¬
social potentialities and to devote themselves to the task of trying to
turn the information back of its creation into productive social chan¬
nels and away from destructive purposes. McArthur was probably
right when he said that our problems in the future will be largely
theological. We certainly need such contributions as can be made by
religious leaders in our effort to direct the labors of scientists into
proper channels. The natural scientists need the faith of the social
scientists that the right will eventually triumph. We must work fast to
replace hatred, fear, and competition with faith, altruism, and love for
all mankind. The social sciences can provide the framework or pattern
and set up worthy goals, while physical sciences can furnish the
means, tools, procedures, and measuring devices. The social sciences
should probably take the lead in the final evaluation of outcomes.
Some have claimed that our troubles stem chiefly from the fact that the
social sciences have lagged behind the physical sciences. This may be
true in some measure, but the chief trouble arises from the fact that
the two groups have not been made to function as a unit in attack on
our problems and issues.

How Can We Secure Cooperation Among the Scientists?

In the long run, we shall have to depend on the proper preparation
of youth to secure the kind of workers in all branches of science if we
are to make these sciences serve humanity to the best advantage.

33

Much must be done with present workers as stop-gap measures because
the demand will not wait. But youth can be trained to attack prob¬
lems cooperatively before they acquire loyalties for individual subject-
matter areas, and that with much less effort than that required to
convert adults to a new way of looking at life’s demands.

The writer of this paper has been chiefly concerned with the
preparation of teachers who will guide their students in the integra¬
tion of the elementary phases of the social sciences for the purpose of
providing experiences which will acquaint them with the techniques
required in dealing with social problems and issues in natural, life-like
situations. For example, they learn how each of the different social
sciences contributes to the successful management of a community enter¬
prise, such as the construction of a new school building.

The necessity for the consideration of geographical information in
the determination of the location of a school plant is too obvious to be
overlooked. Historical trends with reference to the acceleration of the
growth of population, and the direction of its expansion demand care¬
ful consideration in the choice of the building site and the size of the
structure. In some communities racial problems are of sufficient magni¬
tude to require the employment of the subject-matter of sociology in
the attempt to decide upon the most satisfactory location with reference
to various types of residential areas. The content of economics will
supply information relative to the problem of financing the project
and the proper distribution of the cost among direct and indirect bene¬
ficiaries. The entire undertaking will constitute a civic undertaking in
which the principles of community civics will be employed in each co¬
operative effort and in every sacrifice incurred in service to the com¬
munity.

But when contributions of all the social sciences have been utilized
in such an undertaking, the students and the teachers discover that the
project cannot be completed without calling upon the content and pro¬
cedures of physical sciences and other branches of learning. Community
hygiene must be employed in selecting a sanitary site and in provision
of sanitary equipment. Problems involving the subject-matter of
physics, architecture, mathematics, mechanical engineering, and other
sciences play a very significant role as the undertaking goes forward.

It is significant to note that materials from many areas in both
social and physical sciences must be utilized simultaneously, and not
one at a time. Physical and social science constitute a two-horse team.
Nothing of value is accomplished if one pulls at one time and the
other at a different time. It requires the application of all forces at the
same time.

In a unit on home life students and teachers soon learn that
almost all of the social sciences and almost all of the physical sciences
have to be integrated and synchronized to make an intelligent, effec¬
tive treatment possible, and that seldom, if ever, are the materials of a
single subject alone employed in treatment of a social problem.

In the traditional school students become so accustomed to un¬
organized, piecemeal study of life problems that it is almost impossible
for them to make a satisfactory approach to the solution of such

problems through the employment of information and skills acquired
in isolated, unrelated, unsynchronized, and consequently, unnatural
consideration in school subjects. It is extremely desirable that they
deal with life problems and issues in school in the same manner which
is required to deal adequately with them outside of school. It is hoped
that the new approach through the integration of contributions from
all subject-matter areas in dealing with these projects in school will
result in trained workers who will be able to utilize information and
skills, regardless of the subject in which they reside, in the solution of
problems confronted in post school life.

Neither the social sciences nor the natural sciences can furnish us
all of the information, skills, and principles which are required to
master ourselves and our environment. Nor can both do so in the ab¬
sence of cooperative, unified effort under all circumstances and at all
times.

If these assumptions are correct it is not difficult to understand
that the interdependence of social and physical sciences is real and
vital, and that it would be tragic to fail to realize this fact immedi¬
ately, and to work speedily on the problem of bringing them into closer
unity in collaboration and objective.

THE BIOTIC COMMUNITY CONCEPT AS APPLIED
IN HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

Walter P. Taylor, Leader
Texas Cooperative Wildlife Unit *

College Station, Texas

Although the paleontologists have given years of study to the
significant records of the past, it has remained for the ecologists to
point out one of the essentials to a clear understanding of conditions
during geologic times. Note the following from Clements (1916, p. 319):

• • • it seems clear to the ecologist that the correlation of the land
vegetation and fauna has scarcely begun, and that it must hold a future
of peculiar attractiveness. Naturally, a few of the outstanding relations,
such as that of mammals to the appearance of angiosperms and especi¬
ally grasses, have been pointed out. No adequate treatment of this
subject is possible, however, until the interaction of plant and animal
communities at the present time is much better understood. Indeed,
it seems certain that this will involve not only the articulation of
distinct but associated plant and animal communities, but the recogni¬
tion of actual biotic communities, in which certain plants and animals
are at least as closely and definitely interdependent as the plants or
animals are among themselves. It seems certain also that these biotic
communities will prove to have an organic development and structure,
such as has already been shown for plant formation.” Later events seem

* Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the Interior;
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas; the Texas Game, Fish
and Oyster Commission; and the Wildlife Management Institute, co¬
operating.

35

to be affording abundant proof of the accuracy of Clements’ predictions.
Osborn, likewise, has pointed out (1910, p. 45) that close geological
synchronism requires comparison of the entire fauna and flora.

Perhaps it will be well to review some facts and observations in
the field of historical geology, with the object of testing out the inter¬
dependence of plants and animals through time. By reading the record
aright, a glimpse can be obtained here and there of the unfolding
panorama of soil and topography, with the associated plant and animal
life that went with it.

It is altogether likely that the earliest organisms were not plants
nor animals but plant-animal in nature. They probably exemplified,
in their own relatively simple organization, the primitive counterpart
of the modern biotic community. As differentiation proceeded, plants
and animals, as such, were separated off. All available information re¬
garding plants and animals in the present suggests that from the be¬
ginning there must have been interrelationship and interdependence
between plant-stuff and animal-stuff.

The impression of a plant fossil, perhaps of somewhat questionable
status, occurs in Ordovician (Protannularia), but the first unquestioned
evidence of plants occurs in the Middle or Upper Silurian of Australia
when ferns and their allies are unmistakable. In Devonian the ferns,
club mosses, horsetails and primitive gymnosperms appear. Coactions
of plants on plants were doubtless abundant in Carboniferous, as the
presence of decayed material indicates presence and abundance of
bacteria. Some of these primitive biotic communities are still of great
significance to man — as the oil and gas series, some at least of the
limestone and even iron ore, are very largely of organic origin.

It is extremely probable that there were important food and shelter
relations between the stegocephalian amphibians (dominant animal
life on earth during Carboniferous and early Triassic) and their plant
and insect associates.

The land animals of Paleozoic times were mostly insects, scorpions,
and primitive creatures of the cockroach, dragon fly and grasshopper
types. All these animals, some of them very large, were undoubtedly
closely related, in a functional sense, to the vegetation of their day.

In these ancient times insects were apparently the only flying ani¬
mals. Some insects remained of large size until reptiles appeared. Then
their size dropped to about what it remains at present.

Appearance of higher flowering plants in Mesozoic (Cretaceous or
possibly a little earlier) indicates development, at about that time, of
rather important and possibly obligatory coactions between plants and
their pollinators, the insects. Analogy with the present day suggests
the probability that the development and further evolution of the
flowering plants may have depended to a considerable degree on the
insects.

There is a possibility that the appearance of the mammalia in
Mesozoic was associated with development of higher flowering plants,
possibly, in part, through food or shelter relations.

Appearance, in Jurassic and Cretaceous, of birds, introduced a
whole new series of coactions, namely those between the birds and

36

their animai, and especially plant, associates. As at present, so then,
the birds must have been dependent on plants, to a considerable de¬
gree, for food and shelter. Plants must have relied on birds for a cer¬
tain amount of pollination, as well as for seed dissemination in certain
instances.

Early mammals are presumed to have fed on insects. J. C. Merriam
was of the opinion they could not have fed on vegetable food because
of their lack of grinding teeth. Mammals with tritubercular teeth,
however, could have eaten herbs.

In his great book on “The Age of Mammals,” Osborn (1910) traces
in considerable detail the interrelations of mammals to their environ¬
ment, especially in Cenozoic times. Nor does he omit the plants, but tells,
in a very convincing manner, the story of how they were related to
the animals which largely lived upon them.

As pointed out by Osborn, it is assuredly true that to a certain
degree animals mirror their environment. A jerboa or kangaroo rat
like creature is almost certainly an inhabitant of an arid area. A tree
squirrel shows that forests were present.

Extensive forest tracts are also clearly indicated (in horses, for
example), by the short-crowned teeth, short heads, and usually short
heavy limbs that go with a browsing habit. Grassy plain and desert
are indicated by the long-crowned teeth so necessary to grind up the
harder siliceous leaves of the grasses, also by the long-headed types
adapted to secure food by grazing from the ground rather than brows¬
ing from bushes or trees. With these characters are associated light and
long limbs to secure speed in getting over an open plains country.
Flight from enemies and cross-country journeys to water or better
feed have always required the ability to cover considerable distances
in a short time.

Osborn (1910, p. 88) noted that certain Eocene deposits were
characterized by extinct mammals of a sort chiefly inhabiting a broken
hilly and forested area, a country of plateaus, uplands, elevated basins,
lakes and rivers. Other deposits of the same epoch contained the re¬
mains of types of mammals inhabiting open plains. These plains appear
to have been traversed by broad, slow-moving rivers. Some of the
plains areas were partly forested savannahs, with shallow lakes, and
a tendency toward increased dryness. There is, indeed, evidence of
distinctly arid periods in which considerable stretches of sandy flood
plains became desert-like during the dry season, affording the oppor¬
tunity for the evolution of mammals with slender or running types of
limbs and feet.

Of special interest, perhaps, is Osborn’s observation (1910, p. 93)
that diminution of browsing mammals and increase of grazing species
was one of the great features of Cenozoic evolution.

The evolution of the grasses, while relatively little-known, is of
extraordinary significance. No family of plants possesses greater im¬
portance to mankind or, perhaps, to animals generally. Many important
chapters in the story of animal and especially mammalian evolution
are closely associated with them. There is little doubt that the im¬
portant reactions of native plains animals, (grazing, trampling) on the

37

grasses were of the same type in geologic times as, at present; although
at present, of course, there is this difference, that the original herds of
grazers, doubtless in some sort of equilibrium with their food plants,
have been largely replaced by the specially bred, vigorously selected,
artificially cared for domestic livestock. In many places competition for
grass has resulted in extraordinarily severe, unaccustomed, and pro¬
longed pressure on the vegetation (probably unlike anything in geologic
times) with serious results in depletion of the plants and erosion of
the soil.

Seemingly the rise of the grasses is associated with the widespread
extinction of certain mammalian types that took place at the end of
Oligocene. This epoch witnessed a world-wide diminution of the larger
types of browsing animals, creatures with short-crowned teeth and
heavy limbs and feet. At this time the anthracotheres, anoplotheres,
lophiodonts, xiphidonts and a number of other groups, disappeared or
became much reduced in numbers and importance. At the same time
there was an increase of grazing animals, with light limbs and long-
crowned teeth, additional evidence of increasing aridity.

Survival appears to have been very closely related indeed to the
structure of feet and teeth. Osborn (1910, p. 238) refers with approval
to Kowalevsky’s theory that “ . . . mechanically defective feet were
incapable of acquiring the elongation in the cursorial type which saved
the lives of the artiodactyls with adaptively formed front feet. The
short-crowned teeth could not survive the change of vegetation from
the softer herbage of Eocene times to the harder grasses of late Oligo¬
cene and Miocene times.”

Apparently the grasses continued to increase in upper Miocene
(Osborn, 1910, p. 283), forming the chief food of horses and ruminants.
The characters of the teeth and feet of these animals (1. c., p. 297)
demonstrate the spread in America as well as in Europe of dry, grassy
plains, droughts, arid seasons and long distances between water holes.
The Pliocene, on the other hand (Osborn, 1910, p. 311) closed with a
moister condition. Forest and river were interspersed with meadows
favorable to browsing deer, as well as to the grazing animals, ele¬
phants, horses, and cattle, but studies by Dixon (1934) in California
and by tK^ writer and others in Texas have shown that under some
present conditions at least, deer consume many weeds and much more
grass than was formerly thought.

Without taking full account of the interrelationships involved be¬
tween the grasses and the mammals, one would miss much of the pic¬
ture. Seemingly it is clear that adequate explanation of historical
geology depends on consideration of the biotic community.

In the Paleocene occurred a number of small herbiverous mammals
which secured their food by gnawing and leaf -eating. (Among these
were the Periptychidae (Condylarthra) and at least two families of the
order Taeniodonta. Gidley believed that the aberrant diprotodont mar¬
supial known as Ptilodus was fruit-eating, since its incisors are well-
fitted for picking small fruits or berries. There is also an alternative
view according to which the creature is regarded as a gnawer much
like our present-day rodents.)

38

Almost as wide a range of interrelationships between mammals,
plants, and environment is indicated in the teeth and skeletons of these
Paleocene and Eocene mammals as among mammals of the present day.

Osborn points out that diprotodonty was developed in a number of
Eocene mammals, including the T'illodonts, Taeniodonts and early
Rodentia. The physical characters indicate plant-eating, gnawing, and
leaf-cutting habits. Birds, too, are sufficiently represented to enable
Osborn to conclude (1910, p. 151) that those from the Phosphorites of
Quercy (Europe) are types fitted to great warm plains with groves of
trees scattered over them. The variety of birds suggests a varied en¬
vironment, very much the same, in its general relationships, as at
present.

As might be expected, evidence from Pleistocene time becomes
still more understandable and convincing. In the progression from
Paleolithic to Neolithic (Osborn, 1910, p. 418) Nehring noted a transi¬
tion from the pure arctic fauna of the so-called Lower Rodent Layer
(in a grotto deposit at Schweizersbild near Schaffhausen) with the
vole, hare, fox, reindeer and ptarmigan, to the Steppe fauna, with ham¬
sters, pikas, and wild horses (forests absent) then to the Upper Rodent
Layer, which indicates a steppe fauna intermingled with an increasing
number of forest types such as squirrels, dormice, and the pine marten,
and finally to the Forest fauna, with the squirrel, beaver, pine marten,
stag, roe, wild boar and brown bear. There is consistent evidence that
important changes in the plant part of the community were regularly
reflected in the animals. It is of interest that the hairy mammoth
(Osborn, 1910, p. 420) was part of the biotic community the plant por¬
tions of which included grasses, sedges, wild thyme, beans of oxytropis,
as well as seeds of alpine poppy and crowfoot, all of which have
been found in the mouth and stomach of a fossil mammoth.

There seems to be plenty of evidence that the relations and inter¬
dependence of plants and animals always were vitally important, al¬
though this point is seldom stressed in paleontological literature. On
the contrary, running through the writings of some of the paleontolo¬
gists one notes an uncritical assumption of absolutely independent de¬
velopment of plant and animal communities. Nothing that can be seen
now, as modern biotic communities are examined, seems to justify this
assumption. According to man’s views at present plants and animals
are pretty definitely interrelated. Animals, for example, are, and have
always been, fundamentally dependent on plants for the starches and
sugars which they cannot make from raw materials. It is not improbable
that plants have always been more or less dependent on animals also.
The flowering plants have certainly relied in a very important way on
their pollinators. All plants may be somewhat dependent on animals,
either for pollination, dissemination, number regulation, provision of
C02 or of remains of their bodies, and assistance in the preparation
of a suitable substratum. These fundamental interdependencies seem¬
ingly justify extension of the concept of the biocenose or biotic com¬
munity to past times. In paleontology, as in modem ecology, attention
has been too much concentrated on the structure and habits and dis¬
tribution of individuals and individual species. The extremely impor-

39

tant relationships, of individuals to each other, of species to each other,
and especially the relationships of plants to animals and animals to
plants, have not received the attention they deserve.

Perhaps it is not strange that relationships have not been stressed
as they should in paleontology, where the records are fragmentary at
best. Indeed, all too little attention has been paid them in the study
of the plants and animals of the present day, where the records are
relatively so much more adequate.

Clements (1916, p. 279) calls attention to the fact that while the
study of fossil floras has steadily advanced our knowledge of geologi¬
cal floristics, especially in the last decade, the field of ancient vege¬
tations remains completely unexplored. All that we have said up to
date indicates that this is even more true of the field of ancient biotic
communities. Osborn’s keen interpretations afford a tantalizing hint of
what we may expect when paleontology is put on a real ecologic and
bio-ecological basis. It is not enough to study past vegetation or the
animals of ancient times.

Life communities of the present day are wonderfully complex
assemblages of plants and animals, interrelated throughout their entire
distributional area and sphere in numerous important ways, ways so
important, indeed, that adequate knowledge of the plants or the ani¬
mals of the present is impossible without insight into their inter¬
relations. One cannot possibly learn everything about plants by study¬
ing plants alone. He must give attention to the animals of the biotic
community in which plants occur. Similarly with animals, one must
know something about the plants with which they are inevitably inter¬
related.

Man likes to catalog, to pigeon-hole, to compartmentalize! Paper
after paper is written in paleobotany, for example, with some of the
most important data omitted. The plants are given careful attention,
but some of their most important relationships, those to the animals, are
left out. The losses to knowledge suffered by this method of specializ¬
ing on the plants are doubtless quite substantial. For the most part
paleozoological papers are just as bad. The animals alone are treated
and their associated plants omitted. It is the exceptional writer who
treats the plant-animal community. This is unfortunate, since the
biotic community, made up of both plants and animals, is much closer
to reality than its plant or animal portions taken separately.

SUMMARY

1. Improved knowledge of food and life habits of present-day
animals, and of the interrelationships of modern plants, can be counted
on to improve paleontological interpretations.

2. Plants and animals can be used as indicators of past environ¬
ments in proportion as their present-day characteristics are known and
as their known relations with their surroundings are distinct and defi¬
nite. Clearly apparent is the need for careful study of the ecology of
the present as a guide to that of the past. The variable conditions gov¬
erning the preservation of fossil remains must also be taken carefully
into account.

40

3. The all-too-prevalent custom of using data from plants alone
or from animals, alone in making paleontological interpretations is open
to question. Complete and adequate explanation of the biological and
physical events in historical geology can only be derived from a satis¬
factory understanding of the plant-animal communities of the past. In
other words, biotic relationships must be taken account of in paleon¬
tology as in present-day biology. Evolution of plants, animals and
environment has proceeded up through time as a great unitary process.

LITERATI.! EE CITED

Clements, F. E. — 1916 — Plant succession on analysis of the development
of vegetation. Carnegie Inst, Wash. Publ. 242: 512 pp.

Osborn, H. F.— 1910— -The age of mammals in Europe, Asia and North
America. New York. 635 pp.

Dixon, J. S. — 1931 — A study of the life history and food habits of the
mule deer in California. Cal. Fish and Game 20(3 & 4): 181-282;
315-354.

THE CONSERVATION OF ARCHAELOGICAL RESOURCES

IN TEXAS

T. N. Campbell and Alex D. Krieger
University of Texas

Archaeology, which is one of the sub-sciences in the broad science
of anthropology, is concerned with the life of man in prehistoric times.
One of its primary aims is to reconstruct the history of man during the
long period which preceded the appearance of reliable written records.
All intelligent people are interested in man’s past, and it is the respon¬
sibility of the historian and the archaeologist to satisfy this intellectual
curiosity. The historian relies on the written documents of the recent
past, but the archaeologist must depend on information obtained from
excavation in man’s ancient dwelling places. These excavations pro¬
vide the materials for scientific reports and popular books, and they
also yield objects which illustrate the arts and crafts, daily life, and
religion of man in the remote past. Museums display such objects and
usually find that they attract great popular interest.

In Texas, archaeology is concerned with the life of the aboriginal
inhabitants, the Indians, who were truly the first Texans, The complete
history of Texas has not yet been written, and it cannot be written
until archaeological research has revealed the events which happened
before Europeans arrived on the scene in the sixteenth century. To the
archaeologist it always seems odd to hear Texas history summarized
“under six flags” during a period of some four hundred years, for he
knows that Texas was under numerous “Indian flags” for thousands
of years. The archaeologist is very much aware that the European is
not the only variety of man who- has successfully experimented with
living in the Texas habitat.

It is not our primary purpose to- show that the archaeological re¬
sources of this state should be protected in order that we may know
more about prehistoric Texas. We take it for granted that all thinking

41

citizens of Texas appreciate the educational and cultural value of a
broad knowledge of man’s life in the past, whether the scene be Europe,
Asia, or America. But there is another aspect to archaeology which has
not been sufficiently emphasized and which furnishes an additional
reason why the archaeological resources of this state should be pre¬
served and utilized properly. Archaeology can contribute information
which has practical value for other sciences. To be specific, in this
state archaeology has provided data which are useful to climatologists,
geologists, geographers, agronomists, botanists, biologists, soil conserva¬
tion and water engineers. That this infomation has not always been
utilized is probably due to the mistaken impression that archaeology
has nothing of a practical nature to offer.

Archaeological research in Texas and other nearby states has
thrown considerable light on climatic fluctuations in prehistoric times,
especially within the past few thousand years. It has recorded evidences
of drought, erosion, floods, and heavy silting, all of which seem to be
cyclic phenomena. Furthermore, archaeology has helped to date certain
past climatic events. This knowledge will certainly have value in mak¬
ing future predictions. A few examples of contributions in this field
may be cited.

The Great Plains, of which the Texas Panhandle is a part, is a
great borderland lying between the humid east and the arid west. It is
well known that such regions are subject to recurrent droughts of vary¬
ing length and intensity. The white man, who has been farming this
region during the past hundred years, has known severe droughts and
crop failures. We all recall the widely publicized drought of 1934-1936,
but there were also droughts in 1860, 1870-1873, 1889, 1893-1896, and
1917-1918. 1 In this hundred years only two long periods of deficient
rainfall are known, 1893-1901 and 1929-1936, 2 each lasting about nine
years. Fortunately for white farmers, the really severe droughts have
been of relatively short duration and, except in the 1890’s,3 there has
been no widespread depopulation of the Great Plains.

Recent investigations by climatologists and archaeologists suggest
that the Indian farmers of prehistoric times in the Great Plains experi¬
enced droughts that were of much greater duration. The tree-ring
records of Weakly 4 indicate exceptionally long periods of deficient
rainfall in the past, as 1439-1454 (15 years), 1459-1468 (9 years),
1539-1564 (26 years), 1587-1605 (19 years). The archaeologist Wedel 5
has described numerous sites of the Upper Republican culture in Ne¬
braska which are blanketed with layers of wind-laid materials, some¬
times several feet thick. As a rule, the culture-bearing layers are as¬
sociated with humic zones, which indicate the stabilized conditions
which go with adequate rainfall. The Upper Republican people were

1 Clements, 1938, pp. 4, 6; Clements and Chaney, 1936, pp. 37, 41, 43.

2 Clements, 1938, p. 6.

3 Clements and Chaney (1936, p, 43) state that approximately
500,000 people withdrew from the Great Plains during the great drought
of 1893-1896.

4 Quoted by Wedel, 1941, p. 25.

5 Wedel, 1941, p. 18; 1947b, pp. 15-18.

42

Indian farmers who lived during the period 1200-1450 A. D.,6 after
which no trace of them has been found. It is believed that these corn¬
growing Indians were forced to abandon the Plains during the great
droughts of the fifteenth century.

Krieger’s 7 8 9 recent studies of the Antelope Creek culture of the
Texas Panhandle confirm the evidence presented by Wedel. The Ante¬
lope Creek people farmed the Canadian River valley during the period
of 1300-1450 A. D./’ after which they too disappear from the scene. Many
Antelope Creek ruins were filled with wind-blown sand while the
masonry walls were still standing, and it appears that they also were
driven from the Plains during the great fifteenth century droughts.

This evidence raises a question which is of vital importance today.
It suggests that within the larger, well-established climatic cycles of
post-Pleistocene time there are also smaller cycles whose effects are
too slight to leave notable marks on the earth. Yet these cycles seem
to be of sufficient magnitude to affect human life favorably or adversely.
If the Indians of the fifteenth century were forced to leave the Great
Plains because of drought, it is reasonable to suppose that this situation
could happen again. A future swing back to these conditions would
have disastrous effects on modern Plains agriculture. The problem
raised here seems to be important enough to justify an extensive
cooperative research program involving climatologists, geologists, geog¬
raphers, botanists, and archaeologists.

Geologists and water engineers have long been interested in rates
of cutting and filling in Texas river valleys. In many instances it has
been difficult to assign approximate ages to certain river terraces
because adequate fossil evidence is lacking. The recent archaeological
work of Kelley 9 in the Colorado River valley northwest of Austin has
shown that archaeological materials are vertically distributed through¬
out of the 20- and 40-foot terraces. The human cultural remains in these
terrace deposits have been dated by combined archaeological and geo¬
logical techniques as falling within the period of 4,000 B. C. to 1,000
A. D. Here we have the beginning of quantitative data on rates of
alluviation, archaeological materials having assumed the status of
key fossils. Now that the problem is clearly defined, future excava¬
tions in Texas river terrace sites should yield more precise quantita¬
tive data.

There are other instances of the use of archaeological techniques
to date recent geological events. On the Texas coast the archaeological
materials which are buried in clay .dunes are helping to assign dates
to the period when these topographic features were formed. This
throws, light on recent shifting of the Gulf coast line, a matter of some
importance in connection with the current controversy over the owner¬
ship of tidal oil lands. In the Finlay Mountains of western Texas
archaeology has provided geologists with quantitative data on cliff

6 Wedel, 1947a, pp. 150, 153-155; see also Krieger, 1947, p. 143.

7 Krieger, 1946, pp. 38, 48-49, 71, 260.

8 Krieger, ibid., pp. 47-49; 1947, p. 143.

9 Kelley, 1947.

43

recession and slope stability.™ And one geologist n has utilized archae¬
ological evidence to show recent movement along faults of the Balcones
system in central Texas. This evidence was used to support a theory
which explains certain failures in locating pools of oil.

To conclude the argument concerning the practical value of archae¬
ology, we can point to a number of possibilities which have not yet been
fully developed. Archaeology can provide the geographers with infor¬
mation on former population density, early land utilization, and the
effects of native life on the environment, i. e., burning the vegetative
cover. Archaeology can furnish the agronomist with data on the field
crops and agricultural techniques of former peoples. To the zoologist
and botanist archaeology can offer data on earlier geographic distri¬
butions of animals and plants. The bones of various animals are found
in camp sites, and dry caves in the west contain abundant plant remains.
Archaeology can even contribute to medical history by providing human
skeletal remains whose study can throw light on health and disease in
former times.

If archaeology can make contributions of value to the other sciences,
in addition to enriching our knowledge of man’s past, it deserves the
consideration of all scientifically-minded Texas citizens. The sources
of archaeological information should be protected until all the essen¬
tial data have been collected. The Federal Government has led the
way by recognizing archaeological sites as constituting a national cul¬
tural and scientific resource. Seventeen monuments of archaeological
interest have now been established. Through the cooperation of the
National Park Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Corps of Engi¬
neers, and the Smithsonian Institution, archaeological work has been
made a definite part of the great program for flood-control and irri¬
gation.12 Provisions have been made for the location and study of
archaeological sites which will be damaged by constructional activity
or inundated by the waters of numerous artificial lakes in the river
valleys. Wherever possible, this work is being done in conjunction
with state agencies.

But everything cannot be left to the Federal Government. Each
state must have its own conservation program. Some states, among
them Nebraska, Minnesota, and Oregon, have already taken progressive
steps toward archaeological conservation. In these states well-informed
officials in the highway and water engineer divisions of the state
government instruct their field parties to notify competent archaeolo¬
gists when sites are discovered in the course of their work. The same
procedure should be developed in Texas. In building highways surface
sites are frequently cross-sectioned, revealing the remains of pre¬
historic occupation, and important information is often lost when these
sites are not reported. Likewise, surveying parties sent out by water
engineers have opportunities to observe archaeological materials ex¬
posed in the banks of streams and canals. The value of such sites as
sources of information on past climatic conditions has already been
emphasized.

10 Campbell, Howard, Albritton, and Osburn, 1941.

11 Bryan, 1935, 1936, pp. 1357, 1360-1366; Mason, 1936, 1937.

12 Brew and others, 1947.

44

The Texas Academy of Science, as the official organization of
Texas scientists, should play the leading role in the development of a
program which aims at the conservation of the archaeological resources
of this state. Here are some of the things which the Academy can do.
(1) It can take steps to develop an informed public opinion concern¬
ing the value of preserving and reporting archaeological remains; (2)
it can organize key public officials, engineers, and interested members
of the lay public in such a way that newly discovered archaeological
sites will be reported to the proper research agencies; (3) it can pro¬
vide a means for the exchange of information between archaeologists
and other scientists when this information is of value to both groups;
(4) it can aid local museums in the development of displays which illus¬
trate the life of prehistoric Texas peoples; and (5) it can publish occas¬
ional pamphlets of general interest designed to explain the interaction
of man and environment in Texas, past and present.

LITERATURE CITED

Brew, J. O. et. al. — 1947 — Symposium on river valley archaeology.
Amer. Antiquity 12(4): 209-225.

Bryan, Frank — 1935 — A resume of the prehistoric human cultural re¬
mains so far discovered in central Texas. Bull. Central Tex.
Archaeological Soc. 1: 5-9.

1936 — Evidence of recent movements along faults of Balcones system in
central Texas. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 20(10): 1357-1371.

Campbell, T. N., Howard, Ben R., Albritton, Claude C., Jr. and Dodd N.
Osburn — 1941 — Petroglyphs as criteria for slope stability. Science
93(2417): 400.

Clements, Frederic E. — 1938 — Climatic cycles and human population in
the Great Plains. Sci. Monthly 47(3): 193-210.

Clements, Frederic E., and Ralph W. Chaney — 1936 — Environment and
life in the Great Plains. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Suppl. Publ. 24.
Kelley, J. Charles — 1947 — The cultural affiliations and chronological
position of the Clear Fork focus. Amer. Antiquity 13(2): 97-109.
Krieger, Alex D. — 1946 — Culture complexes and chronology in northern
Texas. Univ. Texas Publ. 4640.

1947 — The eastward extension of Puebloan datings toward cultures of
the Mississippi valley. Amer. Antiquity 12(3): 141-148.

Mason, J. K. — 1936 — Buried midden on the Brazos. Bull. Central Texas
Archeol. 2: 52-58.

1937 — Supplementary notes on buried midden on the Brazos. Central
Texas Archaeol. (3): 68-69.

Wedel, Waldo R. — 1941 — Environment and native subsistence economies
in the central Great Plains. Smithson. Misc. Coll. 101(3): 1-29.

1947a — Culture chronology in the central Great Plains, Amer. Antiquity
12(3): 148-156.

1947b — Prehistory and environment in the central Great Plains, Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci. 50(1): 1-18.

45

RUSSIA AND AMERICA — CONFLICTING IDEOLOGIES
OR DIVERGENT CIVILIZATIONS?

Charles von Schwanitz

Formerly Vice Consul at American Embassy in Warsaw, Poland

On January 15, 1947, one day before the General Elections took
place that determined the future of Poland, I left the city of Warsaw.
On the day of my departure my Polish friend made an effort to im¬
press on me for the last time what he considered to be my mission
upon my return to the United States.

Before the war he had been a prominent faculty member of the
Warsaw University, as well as a high ranking officer in the Polish
General Staff. It would have been difficult to tell his eminent back¬
ground from his appearance as he stood before me in the hotel lobby.
He was stooped in premature age. He wore coarse alpinist’s boots, the
only pair of shoes left him from more prosperous times, and a baggy
pair of loud sports trousers he had received from an American relief
agency. But, despite the pathetic figure he now cut, there was no mis¬
taking the earnestness of his entreaties.

“You have lived in Poland for almost two years now,” he said
earnestly to me in his precise English, “and you have had ample op¬
portunity to appreciate the mood of Eastern Europe. Now you must
tell your friends and acquaintances in America, not what is happening
to individuals, but what is taking place in Europe as a whole. You
must tell them the pattern of post-war developments that is so often
lost sight of in the reporting of vivid, but disconnected, details.” He
paused to make a careful choice of words.

“America is a great country,” he continued with sincerity, “but
I do not believe that the American people understand what is going
on in Europe today.” He looked beyond me thoughtfully and added,
“That is only natural. One must have lived in Europe and have ab¬
sorbed its peculiar political climate, one must have been exposed to
the mood of its peoples, in order to understand the significance of
Europe’s turmoils.”

At the time I did not attach too much significance to my Polish
friend’s entreaties. I knew that, after all, a continuous stream of Ameri¬
can observers had visited Eastern Europe, with as much access to
current facts as I ever had. On the surface it seemed to me that there
was little I could add to their pungent reports of Russia’s encroachment
on Western Europe.

But when I returned to the United States and came in touch again
with American public opinion, I began to wonder whether there was
not some truth in what my Polish acquaintance had said. Undoubtedly
public opinion, during the almost two years of my absence, had under¬
gone a drastic reverse. The people had gradually come to realize that
Russia is not the peacable, if somewhat bumbling and adolescent, bear
it was thought to be during wartimes. As I digested the editorials in
the nation’s press, I plainly saw that the public was only too well
aware of the potential danger facing this country from Russia.

46

But, while I was reassured that the people perceive the threat, I
wondered whether they understand the exact nature of that threat.
I couldn’t help feeling that the general apprehension concerning
Russia, while only too well justified and long overdue, was based less
on an objective appraisal than on an impulsive emotional reaction.
The pendulum, so it seemed to me, had swung from extreme enthusi¬
asm for Russia, our ally, to extreme antipathy towards Russia, the
Communist dictatorship. Now it happens that at the moment both the
objective appraisal of Russia’s foreign policy and the public’s emo¬
tional response toward it coincide in producing apprehension. But, I
asked myself, would not public sentiment, when based largely on hap¬
hazard emotional appeal, in the future be subject to unpredictable
fluctuation, resulting possibly in a second complete reversal of public
opinion regarding Russia?

Now that was exactly the point my Polish friend had so earnestly
tried to impress on me — that our foreign policy is in danger of de¬
pending on emotional vagaries of the moment rather than on a pur¬
poseful analysis of America’s place in the historical pattern of our era.

What, then, is America’s place?

The answer to that question depends primarily on an analysis of
Russia’s place in the historical pattern of our age, for undoubtedly
America’s historical destiny depends largely on that of Russia. And
Russia’s pattern of historical development, in turn, is best understood
by investigating the causative factors of her foreign policy.

What is the dominant trend of Russian foreign policy? The answer
to that question may surprise you. The dominant trend of Russian
foreign policy is its consistency throughout recorded history. It appears
to be a popular assumption that Russia’s foreign policy in recent times
has been unprincipled and ever-shifting. That assumption is incorrect.
Russia’s foreign policy has been, and continues to be, utterly amoral
but it has always followed the same principles. The principles guilding
present-day Russian foreign policy are essentially the same as those
formulated by Czar John the Dread and his adviser Naszrokin several
centuries ago.

What are those principles of Russian foreign policy? Like the
foreign policy of every other country, Russian foreign policy is based
primarily on direct and indirect defensive measures against possible
aggression. It might be argued at this point that Russia nowadays has
no foreign aggressors to fear, but Russia apparently is not in agreement
with this reasoning. The basic psychological motivations for the ever¬
present Russian fear of aggression will be investigated at a later point
in this article.

The Russian nation as a political entity is of comparatively recent
origin. The countries along Russia’s western border had achieved
national unity when Russia herself was still without the semblance of
centralized governmen or political unification. These bordering nations,
and among them primarily the Swedes, the Poles and the Turks, were
therefore much more powerful than the incipient Russian nation, com¬
prising mainly a small area in the vicinity of Moscow. Russia was
therefore constantly harassed, from the north, by the then turbulent

%

47

Swedes; from the west, by the arrogant Polish nobles; and from the
south, by the Moslemites inhabiting present-day Turkey. In addition
Russia suffered repeated devastating invasions from the east by Mon¬
golian tribes. But since the impetus for the westward migration of the
Mongolians in time disappeared and Russia was consequently able to
extend its eastern frontiers to the Pacific, the eastern invasions do
not play a significant role in the formulation of traditional Russian
foreign policy.

The important consideration is that Russia was throughout her
history, until comparatively recent times, constantly threatened from
the general direction of the west. As an inescapable consequence Russia
has developed a sensitive concern for its western frontiers. Out of this
concern arose the traditional Russian policy of ingrained mistrust of its
western neighbors that finds continued application tqday.

In logical implementation of this foreign policy, Russia has con¬
sistently sought to immunize or absorb politically the countries con¬
tiguous to its western border. In recent times Russia has again succeeded
in either immunizing, absorbing or gaining political control over the
countries which had unwillingly formed a part of the Czarist empire.
The Baltic states, Poland, and the Balkan countries are examples in
illustration. In continuation of its policy Russia is now striving to
emasculate the last of its traditional foes, Turkey.

To the politically and historically unsophisticated observer it may
prove bewildering that the current Communist government in Russia
follows a policy identical to that pursued by the former Czarist govern¬
ment. Russia's Communist government is commonly believed to consti¬
tute the very antithesis of the preceding Czarist government and it has
therefore frequently been assumed that the two governments’ respec¬
tive internal and external policies must be as different as night and
day, or white and red, if you prefer. This assumption is incorrect; it
constitutes a fundamental error with regard to our evaluation of the
current Russian government’s place in history.

A comparison of Stalin’s government with the autocratic Czarist
governments that wielded ruthless control during the height of early
Russian expansion reveals startling similarity in all basic points of
internal administration. Both forms of government constitute uncom¬
promising autocracy; in both the people have no voice in the govern¬
ment and are subject to the will of their rulers, without recourse to
law; both have as salient features a small class of privileged adminis¬
trators; and in both forms of government the end justifies the means.
The aparent dissimilarities are only surface illusions. For it is basically
irrelevant whether the administrative aristocracy is reimbursed for its
executive activities on behalf of the ruler with feudal grants of land
and titles of nobility, or with grants of special privileges resulting in
above- standard living conditions and with the honors a modern Com¬
munist autocracy bestows on its kommisars. The principle in both cases
the same.

The mistaken idea that Stalin’s autocracy and the ancient Czarist
autocracies are dissimilar arises out of the confusion of the short-lived
Lenin government with the present Stalin government Virtually the

48

only thing the Lenin and Stalin governments have in common is the
label Communist. The bitter and deepseated feud between the so-called
Trotzkyite communists and the Stalinist communists bears testimony to
the unbridgeable chasm between the two ideologies sharing the defi¬
nition of Communism.

When Lenin first raised the banner of the international proletariat’s
revolution in Russia, the ensuing early Communist government and
the Czarist government it replaced were indeed as widely divergent
from one another as is humanly conceivable. But Lenin’s Marxist gov¬
ernment was fundamentally an alien growth on Russian soil. Lenin’s
government represented a political ideology derived from and intended
to supplant the conditions of liberal capitalism then prevalent in the
highly industrialized western nations. Marxism was never planned as a
blue-print for the rule of Russia, with its peculiar agricultural-bureau¬
cratic traditions and its largely non-existent proletariat. The tenets of
Marxism revolve around the uprooted proletariat of a highly-indus¬
trialized civilization. Russia had no industry worthy of mention.

Lenin’s government did not come to power as the result of an evolu¬
tionary need. It did not fill an inherent need in the Russian pattern
of development. On the contrary it rose to power as a result largely of
a fortuitous chain of circumstances, based mainly on the anarchic con¬
ditions resulting from the ineptness of the Czarist administration prior
to and during the first World War and on the determined lust for
power of a small but tightly-knit group of revolutionaries.

By virtue of its alien origin and consequent unsuitability to the
Russian political climate, Lenin’s government was from the outset
doomed to one of two courses. It could either continue to pursue its
unsuited Marxist policies and eventually destroy itself, or it could in
time gradually adapt itself to the historical needs of Russia. The Rus¬
sian Communist government took the latter course.

The gradual reorientation of Russian internal and external govern¬
ment policy did not become fully apparent until Lenin’s death. But
with Stalin’s assumption of power the shift of emphasis from inter¬
nationalist Marxism to a form of nationalist communism could no longer
be doubted. Almost all the propaganda concepts that had been so dear
to the Marxist government vanished from the Russian scene. It was no
longer considered good ‘communism’ to believe in free-love; or to extir¬
pate all manifestation of religiousness; or to discourage family life. On
the contrary, Stalin, like Hitler and Mussolini before him, now be¬
stowed ‘motherhood’ medals upon prolific Russian housewives. Woman’s
participation in political life was discouraged. And the glories of Rus¬
sian history were resurrected in sympathetic film portrayals of John
the Dread and Peter the Great, who had formerly been the targets of
Marxist calumny as oppressors of the ‘proletariat’. The theme of class
struggle was now largely confined to fanning the hatred for the
‘Western capialist nations,’ But the about-face that had taken place
since Lenin’s days was best typefied by the slogans under which Lenin
and Stalin made their appeals to the masses. Lenin appealed to them
in the name of the international proletariat. Stalin appeals to them in
the name of Russia.

49

Indubitably Stalin has resumed the thread of autocratic nationalism
that has run through the history of Russia since John the Great estab¬
lished the independence of his country by banishing the Mongolian
invaders. Stalin reestablished the traditional Russian form of govern¬
ment, not as a result of subtle political theorization, but because his
undeniable statesmanlike instincts told him that it was the only course
open to strengthen Russia internally and externally.

Why have fervent nationalism and ruthless autocracy become
traditional in Russian history? Like the morbid suspicion of its western
neighbors which forms the motivation for Russia’s foreign policy, the
fervent nationalism and placid acceptance of autocracy have their
origin in the formative period of the Russian national character.

The two salient factors that meet our eye when we view Russia’s
history are the frequent periods of its domination by foreign conquerors
and the resultant isolation of the Russian people from, our civilization.
In particular this holds true of Russia’s repeated and lengthy subjuga¬
tions by Mongolian invaders, extending into the fifteenth century.
During the bleak periods of foreign tyranny, the Russian peasant
would migrate into the virgin woodlands, where he would find com¬
parative freedom. As a result he would, however, be severed completely
from the civilizing influences to which peasants in the contiguous areas
of Poland, the Baltic states and the Balkans were exposed, even under
the most trying conditions of serfdom.

As a consequence of his bitter experiences with foreign invaders
from the east and the west and his attendant isolation from our civiliza¬
tion, the Russian came to nourish a deep mistrust of all things foreign.
He has retained this deeply conditioned mistrust to this day, stubbornly
clinging to it in the face of even the friendliest overtures. We have been
inclined to underestimate the tenacious stubbornness of the Russian’s
ingrained isolationism. This national characteristic was acquired dur¬
ing a period of many centuries and it appears doubtful that it can be
discarded from one day to another.

The Russian has acquired a second national characteristic as an
indirect result of his country’s repeated invasions and conquests. That
is his placid acceptance of an autocratic form of government.

An incipient nation in its early formative period is necessarily
weak and disorganized. In order successfully to oppose foreign en¬
croachments on its territory it must utilize every bit of its meagre
resources. It has no well-trained administrative machinery to organize
the undisciplined inhabitants into a potent weapon of defense. The
inevitable result of these conditions is that the young state will be
forced to take recourse to coercion in order to place the country on a
wartime footing. A primitive autocracy is thus created. If the country
is in constant danger of foreign invasion, the autocracy will be per¬
petuated even during the infrequent periods of peace.

An autocratic form of government was thus, under the existing
primitive conditions, the only alternative to the even more odious
tyranny of foreign invaders. As set forth by outstanding historians on
Russia, the people in time came to accept the autocratic form of govern¬
ment instinctively as a guarantee against foreign domination. The early

50

formative periods of almost all peoples subjected to foreign conquest
appear to have run a similar course.

The national traits of morbid suspicion of all things foreign and of
firm reliance on an autocratic government for protection against the
unknown world beyond the country’s borders are the salient charac¬
teristics of an immature civilization. They are representative of a
primitive phase in a people’s historical development.

We have in the past slipped into the careless habit of regarding
Russia as just another nation, pigeonholing it with such countries as
England, France, Poland or any other European country. That is a
fundamental and far-reaching error. England, France and Poland are
individual, nations, but they are all components of one and the same
civilization. Russia represents an incipient civilizational entity of its
own, entirely separate from and unrelated to the civilization of the
West or, for that matter, different from any established civilization of
the East, North or South.

During their almost uninterrupted isolation from the civilization
of the West, the Russian people were thrown upon their own spiritual
resources and as a result developed a civilizational and cultural out¬
look strictly their own. Their civilizational orientation they found in
the ‘mire’, or primitive village socialism, which has carried over into
many aspects of the current Russian government’s administrative pol¬
icies. Their cultural outlook they derived largely from the Orthodox
faith propagated in Russia by Byzantine missionaries, but adapted to
the inherent mysticism of the Russian.

Thus the Russians’ fervent sense of nationalism, their vaguely de¬
fined but strongly felt autocratic-socialistic tendencies, and their deeply-
felt mysticism enriched by Byzantine influence resulted in the gradual
unfolding of a new civilization, a civilization that is as yet rough-
hewn and loosely defined, but which has a definite and unwavering
orientation. And this orientation is diametrically opposed to that of
western civilization.

The apparently unbridgeable chasm between the two civilizations,
in their present disparate stages of development, is perhaps best illus¬
trated by the failure of the westernized Russian aristocracy to graft
the alien western civilization on the Russian people during the nine¬
teenth century. Czarist aristocracy, wholeheartedly enamored of the
advantages of western civilization, gradually lost contact with the
powerful civilizational-cultural fermentation taking place in the rank
and file of the Russian people. That factor more than any other was
the cause of the Czarist aristocracy’s downfall. The Russian people
stubbornly refused to be swayed from the path of their instinctive
choice, dimly seen but strongly felt.

This inevitable disparity in outlook between the incipient Russian
and our own highly polished civilization is the key to the understand¬
ing of the apparent complexities of the current world situation. The
increasingly apparent incompatibility of Russia and the western powers
is not so much the result of ill will or stupidity on one side or the
other, as it is a symptom of discrepancy in historical development.
Russia is in an earlier phase of civilizational growth than the western

51

nations are. The Russian axioms of political reasoning are vastly dif¬
ferent from our own. We may both employ the same simple processes
of ratiocination, but by virtue of our irreconcilably different premises
we will always reach incompatible conclusions. And each will self-
righteously hold the other to be maliciously wrong.

Russia’s national independence is of relatively recent origin. The
cultural and civilizational progress of the Russian people was retarded
for many centuries by foreign intervention of one kind of another.
The Russian people are now laboriously crawling up the rungs of a
ladder that was scaled by our leading spirits many centuries ago. It
is true that the Russians now have the advantage of using the tech¬
nological improvements forged by western civilization. Rut the spiritual
growth of an embryonic civilization cannot be hastened by mechanical
means. If anything such means, if abused, will retard its growth. The
broadening of a nation’s civilizational outlook can no more be has¬
tened, than a child can be made to mature into a man overnight.

And that is the point my Polish friend had tried to make. The
struggle now taking place behind the scenes is not the clash of inter¬
national Communism with the forces of progressive democracy. It is
not a struggle between political abstractions. It is the inevitable fight
for dominance between the aggressively developing civilization of
Russia and the established civilization of the West. It would be idle
to speculate on possible parallels between our era and the days of the
Roman empire’s struggle with the Barbarians, our ancestors. But it is
essential that we essay objectively our position in relation to Russia.

Our position should not be dependent on what we interpret today
as Russia’s ill will and on what we may tomorrow interpret as Russian
good will. Moralistic judgements of approval or disapproval should be
confined to the workings of a well-integrated society that has accepted
and generally abides by a common denominator of morality. But the
forces of history in their deterministic workings are as amoral as all
other phenomena of nature.

And the spontaneous growth of Russia is as much a phenomenon
of natural forces as is the young oak that pierces the rotting founda¬
tions of a neglected house. Russia is no more capable of moralistic
analysis of its impulsive expansionism than the oak is. That is what
my Polish friend wanted me to tell America.

American foreign policy should be predicated on careful analysis
of the long-range pattern of Russian historical development. Instead
of indulging in continued wishful thinking about Russian foreign policy
of tomorrow and hoping that Russia will suddenly reverse herself, we
should take for granted her continued adherence to the historical pattern
and plan accordingly. Instead of waiting in each and every instance
until Russia has taken the offensive and then sending futile and un¬
enforced notes of protest, we should plot Russia’s probable future
moves on a farsighted basis of historical perspective and seek to fore¬
stall them. If our foreign policy had been charted along these lines in
the past, rather than having been subject to the whims of amateurs
and the selfish machinations of pressure groups, Poland would still be
a free and independent nation.

52

THE FOREST REGIONS OF TEXAS

S. L. Frost
Executive Director
American Forestry Association

Dr. William L. Bray, one of Texas’ most outstanding botanists, said
after a survey of the forests of the state, “Texas is the battle ground
for supremacy of the plant races.”

In our language today, we might call Texas the forest melting pot
of the Nation. For within the boundaries of this vast state we find four
of the six main tree regions of the United States. The southern pine
forests have swept in from the East. The central hardwood forests make
up our post oak belt. Forest growth typical of the Rocky mountain
region is found in some of our mountains in West Texas. Trees that
thrive in arid climates are found in South Texas.

Texas also has regions of trees, such as the mesquite, cedar brakes,
oak shinneries and live oak which, though we cannot claim them entirely
as our own, are of such extent as to be recognized as separate types.

TEXAS ADAPTED TYPES

Fighting the heat, the drought, the winds and adapting themselves
to new kinds of soils, many of the trees which are common to other
sections of the country have through the ages developed into well estab¬
lished Texas’ varieties of their more kindly treated ancestors. Mountain
cedar, Mexican walnut, mountain live oak, Texas redbud, Texas buck¬
eye, all common to the Edwards Plateau region, are close kin to red
cedar, black walnut, live oak, redbud, and buckeye of moister regions.

This battle of adaptation has given Texas almost 800 kinds of
woody plants growing from the soil on 76 million acres. No state in the
Nation can claim as large an area of tree growth.

Of all the factors that determine the pattern of the state’s tree
growth, moisture plays the most important part. This may be the mois¬
ture derived from rainfall. Or it may be the amount of moisture which
the soil holds. In the eastern part of the state with almost a 50 inch
annual rainfall, the pines and hardwoods grow tall. In West Texas, in
a 15 inch annual rainfall area, some oaks are not over knee high. They
form the oak shinneries, the pygmy forests of the state.

Geological formations, soil quality and other features of nature
also determine the pattern of tree growth in Texas.

SURVEY NEEDED

Never has an adequate survey been made of Texas woodland acres.
The 76 million acres set down as tree growth is not backed by accurate
facts in many cases. Money and personnel have never been made avail¬
able in the quantities needed to chart the tree growth of the state.

The East Texas pine and hardwood belt, where commercial timber
products have been cut more more than a century, has been well mapped
and surveyed. This region is supplying Texas and other parts of the
nation with crops of lumber, paper and many other products. Scientific
forestry is being practiced on a fourth of the 11 million acres in this

53

belt. The trees in this region are considered a crop of the soil. With
good farming methods, the state can always have tree crops from
East Texas.

But from the west edge of the pineywoods there stretches an area
of 65 million acres of trees that have largely defied commercial use.
These are the post oak, cedar brakes, cross timbers and other regions.
Great expanses of them are cleared for ranches and farms. But some
of the regions like mesquite are spreading.

As we go from east to west the quality of these countless acres of
trees gets worse. This more than any one factor explains why they are
not used to any extent for lumber. Some of them like mesquite and
ebony have as beautiful a grain as any trees in America. They are used
to make woodenware novelties. This use has not been developed in the
proportions it might. Texas could support lots more small wood manu¬
facturing plants to take advantage of its supply of beautifully textured
trees.

A CHALLENGE TO RESEARCH

With the advancements in wood utilization for chemical products,
Texas forests present a challenge to the research man. People may
raise a questioning eye at ever making anything good out of a lot of
poorly-formed scrub trees in the state. But as long as rubber of com¬
mercial quality can be squeezed out of a lowly two foot shrub like
guayule, there is hope for the ten or twenty foot tree that contains
millions of cells of cellulose.

When Texas will get down to the business of really using its low-
grade forests is any man’s guess. There are still a lot of questions to
find out the answers to. It is going to take some long and serious re¬
search.

As the Nation turns more and more to the use and dependence on
crops and fibres of the soil, we will turn to our forests — Nature’s greatest
factory of cellulose. From trees we can get the things that will clothe,
shelter and help feed us.

FACTUAL INFORMATION ON TEXAS FOREST REGIONS

(Timber volumes for East Texas and post oak by U. S. Forest
Service. Other timber volumes are estimates by Texas Forest Service.
Soil data furnished by Edwin H. Templin, Texas Agricultural Experi¬
ment Station.)

EAST TEXAS PINE AND HARDWOODS

Area in trees — 11,000,000 acres — in 36 counties.

Principal soils — The uplands, comprising 87% of the area, are of
lightly-colored leached acid more or less sandy soils of low natural
fertility. In the absence of fertilization, tree crops, which root deeply,
are better able to thrive on these soils of low fertility than are annual
crops and grasses. The main groups of soils and the approximate per¬
centages of the total East Texas Pine and Hardwoods Area they occupy
are as follows: (1) 33% of well drained sandy loams and loamy sands
with friable permeable subsoils (mainly Bowie, Huston and Kirvin soils),
(2) 14% of similar but slowly drained soils, mainly in the Flatwoods

54

of southeastern Texas and originally occupied by longleaf pine (mainly
Caddo, Segno, and Angelina soils), (3) 23% of well-drained sandy loam
and loams with clay subsoils (mainly Boswell, Sawyer, and Susque¬
hanna soils), (4) 7% of loose deep sands (mainly Lakeland soils), (5)
6% of gray wet loams with heavy clay subsoils, comprising pine-oak
and postoak flats, mainly in Red River and adjoining counties (Lufkin
soils), (6) 4% of redlands originally forested mainly with red oak and
sweet gum (mainly Nacogdoches soils), and (7) 13% of bottomlands
(mainly Bibb, Iuka, Ocklockonee, Trinity and Kaufman soils).

Average rainfall — 45-50 inches.

Estimated standing timber volume — 67,300,000 cords softwoods;
46,700,000 cords hardwoods. (Includes timber 5 inches and over in
diameter breast high.)

Major species — Longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly pines; red, tupelo, and
black gum, white and black oaks; cypress, cedar, white ash, magnolia,
elm, cottonwood, hickory, beech, sycamore, maple, and walnut.

Uses — Lumber, pulpwood, baskets, ties, poles, fence posts, fuelwood,
furniture, handles, boxes and toys.

POST OAK BELT

Area in trees — 5,000,000 acres — in 55 counties.

Principal soils — Similar to those of the East Texas pine and hard¬
woods area, but somewhat less acid and having a much larger propor¬
tion of inter-mingled prairies and much less of the sand soils with
friable subsoils. The uplands are mainly Boswell, Tabor, Lufkin, Sus¬
quehanna, Kirvin, and Lakeland soils; the bottomlands, which comprise
about 15% of the area, are mostly clays and clay loams of the Trinity,
Catalpa, and Kaufman series.

Average rainfall — 35-45 inches.

Estimated standing timber volume — 32,700,000 cords hardwood;
477,000 cords pine; 180,000 cords cedar.

Major species — Post oak, hackberry, elm, mesquite, pecan, live oak,
ash, hickory, cedar. Loblolly pine in Fayette and Bastrop Counties.

Uses — Fuelwood, fence posts, ties, bridge decking and some lumber.

EAST AND WEST CROSS TIMBERS

Area in trees — 5,000,000 acres — in 31 counties.

Principal soils — Mostly of moderately sandy soils of low fertility
with subsoils of reddish clay (Windthorst soils) similar to group 3 of
the East Texas Pine and Hardwoods Area but only slightly acid, less
leached, and of slightly higher fertility. The area includes many inter¬
mixed prairies (largely of Kirkland and Zaneis soils where on shale,
and of Tarrant and Denton where on limestone), considerable forested
shallow soil over sandstone (Darnell soils), some loose sands (Nimrod
soils), and a minor proportion of sandy loams with friable subsoils
( Stephen ville soils).

Average rainfall — 25-35 inches.

Estimated volume — 25,000,000 cords.

Major species — Post oak, black jack oak, live oak, shin oak, west¬
ern red oak, mesquite, elm, hackberry, cedar and pecan.

Uses — Fuelwood and fence posts.

55

CEDAR BRAKES

Area in trees— 5,000,000 acres in 53 counties.

Principal soils — The cedar brakes proper are almost entirely of
stony or chalky nonarable soils of the Brackett, Ector and Potter
series, which are shallow over limestone or caliche. On the darker,
shallow, stony Tarrant soils of the Grand Prairie and Edwards Plateau,
the principal woody species are Spanish oak, live oak, and shin oak.
Associated deeper soils, largely of the Denton, San Saba, and Valera
series, are dark crumbly clays and largely in cultivation but originally
were grassland with scattered live oak trees.

Average rainfall — 20-35 inches.

Estimated volume— 30,000,000 cords.

Major species— Mountain cedar, redberry, juniper, live oak, shin
oak, western red oak, catselaw, sumac, buckthorn, elm, hackberry, ash,
cypress, pecan and mesquite.

Uses — Fence posts, fuelwood, cabinet lumber, novelties and cedar
oil products.

MESQUITE

Area in trees — 50,000,000 acres — in 113 counties.

Principal soils — In the Rolling Plains of west-central and north-
west-central Texas, mesquite is most abundant on the deeper heavier
soils, mostly of the Abilene, Foard, and Tillman series. In the Rio
Grande Plain, south of San Antonio, the soils are mostly sandy loams
to clay loams. They are neutral and mostly limy, moderately to highly
fertile. The principal soils series are Webb, Duval, Brennan, Victoria,
Orelia, and Goliad. In extensive areas of loose sand (Nueces soils) in
Kenedy and adjoining counties, the principal woody vegetation is mes¬
quite and live oak.

Average rainfall — 15-30 inches.

Estimated standing timber volume — 100,000,000 cords.

Major species — Mesquite, shin oak and catselaw in Rolling Plains
region. Mesquite, ebony, huisache, agrito, catselaw, live oak, retama
and many other shrubby trees in the Rio Grande Plain of southern
Texas. Elm, ash, hackberry, and pecan along streams.

Uses — Fuelwood and fence posts, limited amount used for furniture
and wooden ware novelties.

MOUNTAIN FORESTS

Area in trees — No estimate available — in 12 counties.

Principal soils — Stony, nonarable, very shallow but moderately dark
and moderately fertile soils largely on igneous rocks (Brewster series)
and limestone.

Average rainfall— 10-15 inches.

Estimated standing timber volume — No estimate available.

Major species— Pinon pine, western yellow pine, Douglas fir, juni¬
per, oaks, ash, Spanish walnut and mesquite.

Uses — Fuelwood mainly.

56

ON THE NEED FOR RESEARCH ON, AND THE CORRELA¬
TION OF, VARYING PHASES OF BIOLOGY, GEOLOGY,
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ORNITHOLOGY AND THE
RELATED SCIENCES IN TEXAS

J. L. Baughman
Chief Marine Biologist
Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission

Within the past six years I have been actively engaged in the
preparation of an annotated bibliography on the fishes and fisheries of
Texas. This is now completed in as far as such a work can be. During
all this period one thought was recurrently brought to my attention.

Recently I have had occasion to meet with this same thought in
connection with a number of other facets of marine biology and Texas
natural history.

In going through the literature to accumulate such a bibliography
I have, time and again, stumbled upon papers, sometimes in most ob¬
scure publications, dealing with some phase of Texas natural history
other than that in which I was interested at the moment and, ordinar¬
ily, I have made a card on this. Thus over a period of time I have ac¬
cumulated possibly 4 or 5 thousand titles on most of the phyla of the
animal kingdom which occur in Texas. However, I have been re¬
peatedly surprised upon talking with people interested in other phases
than my own, to find that they were unfamiliar with many of the
publications in their own particular line which contained Texas mater¬
ial, and which I had in my card index.

On second thought I could readily see why this might be so. The
publications are many and diverse and they are often not available to
the student. At other times they occur in periodicals where one would
not normally expect to find them and, as a result, are overlooked. Few
ornithologists, for instance, would suspect that there are some very
important Texan bird papers in the old bulletins of U. S. Geological
Survey. Not many naturalists would look in the records of the War
Department or of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for observations on
the bird and mammalian life of early Texas, yet they are there.

The mass of material available is surprising, not only in the earlier
publications but also in the later ones. Scientists, being what they are,
publish wherever they can, in the journals most familiar to them, and
very often another scientist to whom this publication is valuable may
be entirely unfamiliar with it.

As all of us know, the sciences are interrelated as closely as the
interwoven threads in a piece of cloth, and very often the answer that
one man has worked out will cast entirely new light on another’s prob¬
lem in an entirely different line.

There has been, as I have said, an immense amount of work done
over a period of time. For instance, companies like the Humble and Dow
Chemical, agencies like the U. S. Engineers and the Coast and Geodetic
Survey, schools like A & M and Texas, and independent investigators,
all have conducted and are conducting research on physical and biologi¬
cal problems peculiar to Texas, but because of the lack of a correlating

57

agency much of this is not available to other investigators, who may
not have time to go through the vast and voluminous literature that
is published today.

It seems to me, then, that in no other single way could the cause
of science be advanced as much in Texas as by the establishment of
a correlating agency. To obtain the best results, such an agency
would be in touch with all the research laboratories in the State of
Texas, and they should forward to the agency all material published
by anyone in their organization, on any work that they are doing,
or have done, with reference to problems affecting Texas, Moreover,
it seems to me that it would be a very desirable thing for such an
agency to publish, from time to time, a series of abstracts of new
work, combined with reviews or republication of work that had been
previously done but that was not generally known. It makes little
difference what such a publication should be called, the matter of
prime consideration is its content. Presumably, this should include any
and all papers on the natural sciences in Texas, and should endeavor,
above all, to present those early, or otherwise obscure publications,
not generally available.

To give an example of what this would mean, I may cite a recent
talk which I made in Houston, about a subject on which I am not
particularly well informed, namely, marine fouling. During the prepa¬
ration for this talk it was necessary for me to check into this very
thoroughly, and I was surprised to learn that a rather thorough inves¬
tigation of this had been made along the Texas coast by scientists work¬
ing with the National Research Council some 25 years ago; so were
other people interested in the problem when I mentioned it to them.
Further investigation disclosed the fact that a number of the railroads,
chemical companies and industrial and wood preserving concerns situ¬
ated in the state had made and were still making investigations along
these lines. I am sure that many of the investigations were duplicates
of each other, and I am equally sure that had all these investigators
had available to them the results of any previous investigations, their
work would probably have progressed more quickly and there would
have been much less duplication of effort.

To take another case in point, recently a well known geologist
came into the office to meet an equally well known mammalogist. The
geologist had discovered that there was a correlation between certain
geological formations and a certain type of mammalian fauna but, be¬
cause he was not familiar with the mammalian literature on the subject
and because there was no correlating agency to which he might turn,
it was necessary for him to depend on the mammalogist to obtain the
references which he needed.

To give an example from still another field, let us consider the
case of the periodic recrudescence of a demand for passes through the
barrier islands of our coast. The man in the street thinks a great abund¬
ance of fish can be produced in our bays by the construction of passes
between them and the Gulf. The argument is periodically advanced
with great vehemence and the general consensus is that all that is
necessary is to take a dredge and cut a pass directly across the islands.

58

This should not take much money, according to its proponents, and it
should be a simple matter to keep the passes open. Unfortunately, this
is not so. A study of the geology of the coast line and of the mechanics
of the formation of offshore bars along the Texas coast will give a good
and valid reason why such action cannot be successful. Here again,
unless the marine biologist chances up on the geological papers deal¬
ing with this, he has no way of finding them or of knowing that they
are in existence.

A fourth example may be given, namely, the effect of the farmer
and ranchman on the oyster reefs and the shrimp and fish populations.
The enormous load of silt discharged by our Texas streams is a very
significant factor in the marine ecology of our bays, yet information on
this is not ordinaraily available to the worker in marine problems,
through those publications ordinarily used by him.

Such a correlating agency as I have outlined above would be of
inestimable value in those cases I have given, and I am sure that each
of you can think of many instances in his own particular field, whereby
he would have benefited by the knowledge of others being made readily
available.

So complex are the problems of nature that no one worker alone
can begin to comprehend them. I am reminded in this connection of
the story of the three blind men who went to see an elephant. One of
them, coming against its side, said, “Now I very plainly perceive that
an elephant is like a wall.” The second, grasping the ungainly beast
by the tail, was equally certain that the elephant closely resembled a
rope, and the third, grasping the long and sinuous trunk, was thoroughly
convinced that an elephant was like a snake. All three of them were
right as far as they went, yet because of the lack of a catalyst by which
their knowledge could be combined, were wrong as wrong could be.
Many of us are in the same position.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN THE SOCIAL FIELD

E. E. Rosaire
Consulting Geophysicist
Dallas, Texas

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is a rather unusual discipline. Those who
practise it take no preliminary oath or final vows, are not subject to a
specified code of law or ethics, and recognize no associated hierarchy
or enforcement body. The scientific method is no esoteric ritual disclosed
to communicants alone, and it does not make its practitioners any more
or any less human.

While the pracitising scientist submits voluntarily to the judgment
of his peers, he reserves the right of challenge and appeal, or he may
refuse to accept that judgment, relying upon his own efforts, or those
of others, to prove his case. The operation of the scientific method is
hardly strength through joy or peace with honor, for, while no wars
have been provoked thereby, controversy, sometimes bitter, often has
raged, wherein reputations have been won, and lost. It flowers in its
self evolved atmosphere of collective, learned skepticism, in which the

59

ultimate and only arbiter is demonstrable, reproducible, and factual
evidence. Recalling only too vividly the trials and tribulations of their
predecessors in a non-scientific world, its practitioners are allergic to
too close a relationship with established, non-scientific authority.
Thus, many natural scientists, while acknowledging the over-riding
importance of immediate necessity, have expressed concern at the se¬
crecy imposed today, for reasons of national security, on some phases
of fundamental research. They fear that its undue continuation may
lead to what appears to be taking place today in Russian genetics, the
development of a self-sealing, dogma-ridden system, antithetical to
the scientific method, and so to scientific progress. At the same time,
its practitioners hold that there is nothing sacred or sacrosanct about
the scientific method, any more than there is about bread and butter,
for the scientific method has proved to be only the staff of life for the
natural sciences.

The scientific method appears to be no rigidly fixed formula, for
it is applicable to the experimental sciences, like physics and chem¬
istry, and also to geology, for which laboratory techniques are, in gen¬
eral, hardly applicable.

Essentially the scientific method is the application of two steps to
the acquisition of knowledge. The first step includes the observation
and classification of factual data, and the formulation of an hypothesis to
introduce some measure of previously unrecognized order into those
data. This hypothesis must be of such a nature that it can be tested for
validity in the light of new or previously unconsidered data, preferably
by an experimental check. If the hypothesis fails to account for the
previously unconsidered data, it is rejected, or modified so as to ac¬
count for the increased body of factual information. Only when a
hypothesis, whether in its original or modified form, continues to ac¬
count for new factual data as well as for those on which it was formu¬
lated, is it raised to the status of a theory; and only following regular
confirmation by much more extensive and rigorous testing, is it gen¬
erally accepted as a natural law. Even such premier status, however,
obtains only during perfect behavior, for valid, contrary evidence, no
matter how delayed its appearance in court, automatically opens the
case for review.

Although the foregoing description may suggest a certain rigidity,
in practice the scientific method is characterized by a fair amount of
flexibility. Thus, the initial rung of observation may be the work of one
investigator, or more, operating singly, or together, at the same, or
different times. The second rung of classification may be achieved by
the same or other investigators, working with the original observations,
or adding their own to the accumulation. The third rung, completing
the first step, of formulating a hypothesis, may be done by a third
individual or group. The geologists, at this point, prefer to formulate
multiple hypotheses, so as to widen the operating range of the second
step, that of developing and applying the critical test data. As a rule,
this two-step sequence is distributed over a period of years, and may
involve the work of different investigators over an appreciable period
of time. Often, many of these investigators may have worked quite in
ignorance of the use to which their endeavors finally were put.

60

Again, the hypothesis advanced may be continued in the form of
reserved acceptance even if contrary evidence develops. If the possi¬
bility of its confirmation is significantly high, it may remain in force
as a working hypothesis, accepted with admitted reservations because
of the limited state of our present knowledge. Thus, our current pro¬
cedure of oil-finding represents imperfect procedure, the use of a work¬
ing hypothesis which is considered economically justified under existing
conditions, even if the chance of failure is several times the chance of
success. In practice, an obviously imperfect hypothesis often remains
under serious consideration, in a state of “half a loaf is better than no
bread,” until another is advanced which stands up better under trial by
experimental test. Such a “better” hypothesis, however, usually is
accepted generally only after a period of discussion and debate. As
mentioned earlier, the scientific method has left its practitioners still
quite human, in that, even in the face of incontrovertible evidence,
many natural scientists exhibit what is called, for society - at large,
“cultural lag.” Even we natural scientists, presumably indoctrinated
with the scientific method, remain much more “human” than “scientific.”

GENERAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE

The operation of the scientific method has led to one of the most
outstanding developments of our time, if not just that, the achievement
of science in bringing order out of a material portion of Nature’s dis¬
order. This, now progressing at a rate approximating the exponential,
appears, to have brought about that ever-deiiied-something-new-under-
the sun, the creation of trans-uranie elements.

The scientific achievements have had desirable effects. Outstanding
among them are a marked increase in the average span of life, cures
of age-old diseases, and effective measures against civilization-old epi¬
demics. Communications now are practically world-wide, and take place,
point to point, with the speed of light. Travel has gone far beyond
the horse and foot locomotion of two centuries ago. As for energy
resources, wood, the age-old stand-by, now is becoming even more valu¬
able because of its recognition as a “universalrohstoff” ; and we are
not unduly concerned about an apparent warehouse stock of fifteen
years for our prize fuel, petroleum, for atomic power appears to be
just around the corner, or at least not more than half a generation away.

However, there are those who question the net worth of these
scientific achievements, pointing out that they have had undesirable
effects. Bigger and more devastating wars are here, with the next
promising not- only more of the same, but also innovations, the mere
suggestion of which cause phobias which verge on panic. Today, we
speak of the teeming millions of Asia, but tomorrow we may well speak
of their billions, who, certainly will request their lebensraum. There
are not a few today who have reached the conclusion that the world
of old was a near Utopia compared with today’s Inferno, and who
would, if they could, willingly turn back the clock to pre-horse-and-
buggy-days. Such dreamers in the past, worshippers of that which has
gone with the wind, shut their eyes to the realities of those days, of a
much smaller world which had horrors of its own proportionate to
whatever science promises for World War III. It was only yesterday,

61

relatively speaking, that Yellow Jack raged in New Orleans. In the
fourteenth century, the mortality rate of the Black Death is estimated
to have been from one half to two thirds in Europe, and even higher
in England. To Ghengiz Khan and Tamerlane, city- wide devastation
was a common practice, and the Spaniards did not need our modern
technology to wipe out the Incan and Mayan civilizations. If there ever
were the “good, old days,” the living then also prayed “From battle,
murder, and sudden death, Good Lord deliver us!”, and they had a
much lower life expectancy.

In offering comfort to the despondent, I do not mean to encourage
the complacent. I agree that many of these contributions of science
appear to be not unmixed blessings. The radio is a major achievement
in communications, bringing city within speaking distance of city, trans¬
gressing national and continental boundaries, yet, while it brings great
music within hearing range of all, it also brings the soap opera to house¬
wives, suggestive crime stories to adolescents, and subversive propa¬
ganda to guileless citizens. As we raise the standard of living, the birth
rate falls, and the divorce rate increases. As the incidence rate of in¬
fectious diseases drops, those for the degenerative diseases and mental
ills appear to rise. And Mars, today, is panoplied in unthinkable horrible
accouterments. It seems as if we cannot eat our scientific cake and
have it too.

As a matter of observation, however, this phenomenon of a mixed
blessing is not a foundling left on civilization’s doorstep by science
alone. No matter how innocent and how charitable their fundamental
tenets, many if not most religions too often pass through a phase wherein
those tenets have been interpreted in a somewhat peculiar fashion.
The creed of the gentle Christ no doubt appeared as a very question¬
able blessing to the victims of the Inquisition, to the Aztecs and the
Incas, and to the black slaves of our own South. It seems as if Oppor¬
tunity, knocking at Man’s door, too often is characterized by a dual
personality.

THE NON-SCIENTIFIC METHOD

With respect to the secular learned world, Conant has proposed
an operational test whereby science can be distinguished as accumula¬
tive knowledge, in that “when it can be said that earlier writers or
practitioners, if brought to life today, would recognize the superior po¬
sition of their successors, then we can speak of accumulative knowl¬
edge.”

I submit that the present identification of progress in natural
science as accumulative knowledge follows from the operation there
of the scientific method, whereas those other fields of learned effort
(in which logical processes also are used) cannot be classified as ac¬
cumulative knowledge because of reliance therein upon what might be
called the non-scientific method. This much more venerable technique
parallels but is basically different from the scientific method described
earlier.

In one form of the non-scientific method, speculation is substituted
for the initial rung of observation, and the hypothesis formulated to
complete the first step is not one which can be subjected to test by

62

reasonably acquirable, factual data. In theology, the operation of this
non-scientific method can be seen in the once widely accepted Biblical
Theory of Creation, and the argument that man had fewer ribs than
woman (had not one of his been used to make her?). In politics, its
operation is evident in the concept of the Divine Right of Kings, uni¬
versally accepted, even today, as the basis of one of the stop rules of
chess.

In another form of the non-scientific method, while the preliminary
rungs of observation and classification can be recognized, the hypothe¬
sis advanced still is not subject to test by attainable, factual evidence.
This form of the non-scientific method appears to be that applied in
ethics, a so-called normative science, “not primarily occupied with the
character of human conduct but with its ideal, not so much with what
human conduct is, but what it ought to be.” (Encyc. Britannica).

To the man of ethics, the scientific curriculum must be a tantaliz¬
ing disappointment, for consider how the scientist constantly evades
and dodges the ethical issue in the very things which he studies and
practises.

Quite early in his course, the chemist or physicist-to-be spends a
fair amount of his time on the Ideal Gas, the gas with properties as
they should be. (Immediately thereafter, however, he is warned to stay
shy of that ideal, to leave it alone, to apply more and more corrections
on its behavior, until, by the time he has graduated, he goes directly
to the Handbook of Physical Properties for each particular case.) Later,
he is confronted with the Ideal Machine (and then warned against going
too far into the theory involved, that of Perpetual Motion). Such proced¬
ure is poor conditioning for a future ethical scientist.

Rather, his studies should be directed at the design of bridges to
be built of ethical materials which would have zero weight per unit
length. Since such a bridge could carry an infinite load, the designer
could concentrate entirely on lines and form, rather than on such a
mundane consideration as riveting versus welding. Consider the possi¬
bilities in rural electrification resulting from the use of ethical mater¬
ials for electrical transmission lines, for, in addition to zero weight per
unit cross section, they also would have zero resistance to electricity
and air currents, and, of course, zero cost per unit length. As for trans¬
portation, rocket travel would be materially simplified by the use of
ethical fuels, with zero specific gravity, and combustion chambers made
of ethical materials, capable of resisting infinite heat.

In the field of ethical research, there would be a wealth of fasci¬
nating problems. Would an ethical vehicle travel with an ethical velocity
(i.e., infinite speed), or only that of light? In the case of an ethical
reciprocating engine, what of the flywheel? If built of an ethical ma¬
terial, with zero specific gravity, would it function as a fly wheel if
operated at the theoretical angular speed, infinite revolutions per min¬
ute? On the other hand, if an anti-ethical material were used, one of in¬
finite specific gravity, would it function as a flywheel if rotated at an
anti-ethical angular speed, zero revolutions per minute? But then,
would an ethical machine, which would, of course, operate at 100%
efficiency, need a flywheel, fuel tank, bearings, cylinders, or pistons?
A few ethical inventions in ethical science, and the world of ethical

63

problems would undergo major simplification, being reduced to only
one problem of theoretical importance, ethical man himself.

With such an ethically scientific training, and having acquired the
degree of E. E. (Ethical Engineer), such a scientist could be depended
upon by other workers in the field of ethics, for, even though he didn’t
make life more liveable, at least he wouldn’t make death more horrible.

These considerations illustrate the blind alleys and dead ends into
which our efforts might have been directed but for the discipline of
the scientific method. Yet, with all this treatment of ethical science as
whimsy, recall that one such ethical material has been reduced to re¬
ality. As we approach within a few degrees of Absolute Zero (another
goal of ethical science), liquid helium displays zero electrical resistivity,
and thus becomes an ethical conductor of electricity. That achieve¬
ment, however, came about only as a result of the slow, laborious, and
rigorous application of the scientific method, involving the painstaking
efforts of many workers over a long period of time, in several scientific
fields. It certainly was no royal road or ivory tower approach to the
attainment of defined perfection, but rather sheer, hard, and often dis¬
couraging work. Things are so much easier, and go so much more
smoothly by the non-scientific method, for armchair speculation is
much simpler, more efficient, and far less expensive than field opera¬
tion. Then, too, the formulated hypothesis, not subject to experimental
test, evolves so much more smoothly and readily into Law, usually
grandiose, sometimes majestic, but too often followed to the letter alone.

THE SOCIAL FIELD

If we take an overall look at the social field today, we find that
directed effort therein follows along one or the other of two broad
points of view, both worthy of comment.

One point of view is to the effect that man is a unique, rather
than a special, case, and so hardly amenable to the general laws of
nature. One line of action stemming from this point of view is that
progress in the social field is to come about solely by education along
the lines of the accumulated wisdom (presumably different from knowl¬
edge) of the ages, the Great Book Approach; another, somewhat differ¬
ent, viewpoint is that close approximations of the ideal of Ethical Man
have appeared in living form from time to time, and that by, and only
by, conscious, directed (and sometimes enforced) effort can man-in-the-
mass-on-earth attain that rarely demonstrated perfection. Some who
hold strictly to this point of view also affirm that the scientific study
of man would be more than lese majesty, in fact, would border on the
profane, and certainly could lead to no good end. Others who hold to
this basic point of view are far from as strict, for, while holding to the
viewpoint that man is a unique case, they are willing to subject him
to study, providing only that unique methods are used. Thus, all of the
group which hold to this broad viewpoint agree that the scientific
method, which has proved so useful in the study of other forms of
nature, is not applicable to the study of man himself. They aim at
progress, but rely on one form or another of the non-scientific method.

The other point of view, held by a small minority of the workers
in the social field, is that man himself is not a unique case (though ad-

64

mittedly a special and quite complex one). Hence, this minority hold
that the scientific method is applicable to the study of man, as it has
proved to be for the rest of nature.

If we cast ourselves back a very short portion of recorded history,
we can recognize a similar situation in then embryonic natural science.
Man and his material world as well were unique cases. By general,
and sometimes imposed, agreement, natural phenomena were linked to
super-natural causes, and it was more than lese majesty, in fact, it
often proved to be heresy, even to consider that particular natural
phenomena had natural causes. In their search for the Elixir of Life
and the Philosopher’s Stone, our prototypes, the alchemists, might be
considered as seeking to practise a normative science, the study of
Nature as it should be, immortality in a frame of boundless wealth.

Meantime, the early practitioners of the scientific method, blind¬
folded by their own ignorance, faltering under mental and physical
persecution, but holding grimly to a thin thread of factual reality,
stumbled along a narrow footpath, one which gradually opened to the
boundless uplands of natural science as we know them today.

THE APPLICATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN THE
SOCIAL FIELD

It hardly requires an objective observer to recognize applications of
the scientific method to the social field in such social inventions as
life, fire, and accident insurance. Those of us who lived in Houston
during the past few years experienced an appreciable social change
when an apparently hopeless and recurrent downtown traffic snarl was
smoothly resolved (and generally accepted with negligible protest) as
the result of competent traffic engineering. For those who wish to go
further into other results of the scientific method as applied by social
scientists in the social field, I recommend Stuart Chase’s (1948) “Proper
Study of Mankind.” a book which should be of more than passing inter¬
est to natural scientists. Chase presents such a wide range of material
evidence that a review here would not do justice either to his compilation
or to the accomplishments of the social scientists mentioned therein.
I prefer, instead, to discuss the role which the natural scientist can
play in the already started and certain to continue application of the
scientific method to the social field.

NATURAL SCIENCE IN THE SOCIAL FIELD

Dr. Warren Weaver 3 has grouped the progress of science in devel¬
oping techniques for solving problems into two general eras; that prior
to 1900, primarily concerned with the two variable problems of sim¬
plicity, and that (era) subsequent to the turn of the century, when the
development of probability theory and statistical mechanics permitted
us to deal effectively with what Dr. Weaver calls the problems of dis¬
organized complexity. He concludes that the pressing major problems
of science, particularly the life and social sciences, must be classified
into a third group, the problems of organized complexity, for which as
yet, he says, we have no clear cut tactical methodology. Some of us
might prefer to call these the problems of second order effects, at least

65

in their less complex form. Considered as such, some progress has
been made along that line.

In his “Human Frontier,” Dr. Williams (1946) has suggested the title
“humanics” for the scientific study of human beings. In contrast to that
biological robot, man-in- the-abstract, Dr. Williams calls attention to
the wide variety of ways in which individuals exhibit marked differ¬
ences in reaction to the same stimuli. Many of these differences are
not only detectible, but also measurable. Certainly, Dr. Williams’
studies mark considerable progress up the first two rungs (observa¬
tion and classification) of the scientific method.

Also taking issue with the concept of the average man, Dr.
Sheldon (1940, 1942) has developed a constitutional phychology which,
starting with observed body measurements leading to a frame of refer¬
ence in terms of body types, has been carried over into a similar classi¬
fication for temperament, with a remarkably high correlation coeffici¬
ent. Work now under way points to a similar correlation of measured
and classified body structure with natural immunology towards diseases
and susceptibility to particular mental illnesses.

These studies by Williams and by Sheldon, certainly encouraging
starts on the solution of important problems of organized complexity,
have far-reaching implications with respect to social behavior and
environment. If an individual is to be given reasonable opportunity to
develop his natural potential, consideration must be given to the nature
of the environment in which he develops, which now tends to be more
ready than tailor made. By demonstrating actual, rather than postu¬
lating hoped for, social gains, our social engineers of the near future
may be able to justify the greater cost of drilling square holes for
square pegs. Tolerance, too, might become more realistic, if recognized
as a measurable social value instead of as an ephemeral ethical goal.

In developing a methodology for solving problems of organized
complexity, Dr. Weaver anticipates material help from two techniques
brought into prominence during the years of war effort.

One of these is the “mixed team” approach of operation analysis,
wherein competent scientists, specialists in widely separated fields,
combine their efforts and experience in the solution of problems to
which, operating singly, they could hardly do justice. Dr. Weaver says
that such groups found they could work together, and that, in such
cases, the mixed team formed a whole which was more powerful than
the sum of its parts.

The other approach is the progress being made in the development
of electronic computing machines, now being built in sizes and capaci¬
ties which approach the gigantic. In very short periods of time, these
machines can calculate answers to quite complex problems involving
several variables. These machines have prodigious memories, being able
to store information and use it as needed and, further, include auto¬
matic checks, so that the machine can recognize when it has made an
error, and call attention to the mistake.

These two approaches have been combined in the new borderline
field of “cybernetics,” (Wiener, 1948) which attempts to find the com¬
mon elements in the functioning of automatic machines and the human

66

nervous system, and to develop a theory which will cover the entire
field of control and communication in machines and in living organisms.
Dr. Wiener, a mathematician, and a pioneer in this field, teamed up
with specialists in various fields of natural and social science, physicists,
physiologists, economists, psychologists, sociologists, engineers, anato¬
mists, neuro-physiologists, and others. Interesting progress has been re¬
ported in setting up electronic devices which, in many respects, are
striking analogies of the human brain in operation. We can be reasonably
sure that such operation analysis teams will rely, primarily, upon the
scientific method.

Thus, there is much evidence that the scientific method can be and
is being applied in the social field. While the progress may appear
meager, and the constructive applications disappointingly slow, such is
all which can be expected in the beginnings of even an exponential
curve.

But, what can be expected from such a social science when that
reasonably expected exponential curve has taken shape and form?
The Ethical Man, and a Heaven on Earth, the goal of those who prefer
the non-scientific method in the social field?

Probably not. If our prototypes, the alchemists, were normative
scientists, then consider that, with all our progress in natural science,
we have attained (apparently) immortality, for a portion of a chicken’s
heart, and, on a minute scale, have transformed gold into mercury, the
inverse of the Philosopher’s Stone. If the men of ethics and religion
are the analogous prototypes of our social scientists of tomorrow, then
the rarely and difficultly achieved perfection of the future may be
just as different from the too easily defined perfection of today. About
all we can be sure of is that our children’s world, and that of their
children, will be vastly different from ours, that they will be just about
as human as we are, and fall about as short of defined perfection as
we do now. Probably some of them will regard our pre-atomic world
with nostalgia, and blame the operation of the scientific method for
many of their current ills and crises. On the other hand, some of them,
more realistic, will regret, as do some of us, the wasted efforts and
futile hopes too often associated with and following from the intensive
pursuit of the non-scientific method. That vast frustration is in such
marked contrast with the reality of progress which followed from the
application of the scientific method in the natural field, and which can,
quite reasonably, be expected to follow from its application in the
social field as well.

LITERATURE CITED

Chase, Stuart — 1948 — Proper study of mankind. Harper and Bros. New

York.

Encyclopedia Rritannica. 14th ed. 8: 757.

Shelton, W. H., and S. S. Stevens: — 1942 — Varieties of human tempera¬
ment. Harper and Brothers.

Shelton, W. H., Stevens, S. S., and W. R. Tucker — 1940 — Varieties of

human physique. Harper and Brothers.

Weaver, Warren — 1947 — The scientists speak. Boni and Gaer.

Wiener, N.- — 1948 — Cybernetics. John Wiley and Davis.

Williams, Roger J. — 1946 — The human frontier. Harcourt, Brace and Co.

67

THE MAMMALS OF THE SIERRA VIEJA REGION,
SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS, WITH REMARKS
ON THE BIOGEOGRAPHIC POSITION
OF THE REGION

W. Frank Blair and Clay E. Miller, Jr.

Department of Zoology
University of Texas

INTRODUCTION

The Sierra Vieja range of Trans-Pecos Texas has not been previ¬
ously studied by animal geographers or ecologists. The location of this
range between the comparatively low Rio Grande Valley to the west
and southwest and the relatively high grasslands of the Valentine
Plain to the east and northeast makes it an interesting region for work
in ecological biogeography. The present report deals with the ecological
distribution of the mammals of the Sierra Vieja region as determined
by field work in the summers of 1947 and 1948.

The Sierra Vieja region, as well as most of Trans-Pecos Texas, lies
in the Chihuahuan biotic province as limited by Blair (1940) and Dice
(1943). The ecological distribution of the mammals in other parts of
the Chihuahuan province in Texas has been studied in the Davis Moun¬
tains by Blair (1940), in the Chisos Mountains by Borell and Bryant
(1942) and in Culberson County by Davis and Robertson (1944). The
Guadalupe Mountains, which were studied by Davis (1940), are referred
by Dice (1943) to a different biotic province, the Navahonian.

The work here reported represents one phase of an ecological dis¬
tribution study of the vertebrates of the Sierra Vieja region. The physi¬
cal and vegetational environment was studied by York (unpublished).
The ecological distribution of the resident birds was investigated by
Phillips and Thornton (unpublished). The ecological distribution of the
reptiles and amphibians was studied by Jameson and Flury (In Press).

Most of the field work was done on the C. Espy Miller ranch, on
the eastern slope of the Sierra Vie j as and on the adjacent plains. Other
work was done on the Roosevelt ranch, between the Miller ranch and
the town of Valentine, and on the Rio Grande about five miles north¬
west of the town of Porvenir. The senior author and 22 advanced stu¬
dents in the biological sciences at The University of Texas spent the
period of June 3 to July 9, 1948 in the Sierra Vieja region. The junior
author, J. B. Nance, and the late Harry E. Steincamp studied the distri¬
bution of the carnivorous mammals of the region. Paul W. Collier,
R. E. Fuge, K. E. James, R. J. Kemp, R. S. Osborn, C. L. York, V. H.
Roan, W. W. Webster and Robert Zschappel investigated the distribu¬
tion of the small mammals. James L. Reagan and Sam M. Await studied
the ecology of the pocket-gophers. Alfred W. Anderson studied the food
habits and general ecology of the mule deer. We are indebted to our
co-workers for their contributions to this survey of the ecological dis¬
tribution of the mammals of the Sierra Vieja. Some additional data
are available from three days of field work in the Sierra Vieja by the

authors and D. G. Walker in August, 1947 and three days work by the
authors in April, 1948.

We are particularly indebted to C. Espy Miller for permission to
do field work on his ranch and for the donation of valuable specimens.
We are indebted to James Bankert for donating valuable specimens of
mammals. We are indebted to Henry Leithead of the Soil Conservation
Service for providing us with aerial maps of the region. We are indebted
to C. C. Sanborn for examining most of our specimens of bats of the
genus Myctis.

ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAMMALS

The region studied lies in what we consider to be two biotic districts
of the Chihuahuan province. The mountain mass, at least that part of it
east of the “rim”, lies in what we will call the Sierra Vieja district.
The valley of the Rio Grande lies in another district which we will
call the Rio Grande Basin district. Two life belts occur in the Sierra
Vieja district. The Plains belt includes the relatively level grassland
and desert of the Valentine Plain. The Roughland belt includes the
mountain mass of the Sierra Vieja from the base of the mountains to
the rim and possibly extends beyond the rim. In the Sierra Vieja district
six ecological associations 1 were investigated in the Roughland belt,
and seven were studied in the Plains belt. In the Rio Grande Basin
district, five ecological associations were investigated. The physical
features and the vegetation of several associations have been described
by York (unpublished). The present report considers the distribution
of the different species of mammals in these associations.

PLAINS LIFE BELT

The Plains life belt includes the broad, relatively level plain that
extends eastward from the base of the Sierra Vieja to the Davis Moun¬
tains. The boundary between the Plains belt and the Roughland belt
of the Sierra Vieja district lies at an altitude of about 4500 feet. One
ecological association, the catclaw — cedar association, here assigned to
the Plains belt, is transitional between the two belts and could be in¬
cluded with some justification in either belt. This association occurs
on the alluvial fans at the mouths of some of the canyons. The catclaw —
tobosa association occurs also on the alluvial fans but generally at a
greater distance from the mountain mass than the catclaw — cedar asso¬
ciation. The tobosa — grama association is the most widely distributed
of the Plains belt associations. The creosote bush — catclaw — blackbrush,
mesquite — huisache — blackbrush, yucca — blackbrush — grama, and black¬
brush — creosote bush associations occur under varying edaphic condi¬
tions.

Fourteen species of mammals are known, in the Sierra Vieja dis¬
trict, from the Plains belt but not from the Roughland belt (Table I).
The known ecological distribution of mammals in the associations of
the Plains Belt (Table I) is discussed below. Because the numbers of
mammals may fluctuate from year to year, the statements made here are

1 An ecological association, as here defined, includes the plants and
animals that occur together in a relatively stable environment.

69

Table I

Records of Mammals from the Ecological Associations of the Plains
Life Belt, Sierra Vieja Biotic District. The symbol x indicates sight
records or other evidence, where specimens were not collected.

SPECIES OF MAMMALS

RECORDS

FROM

ECOLOGICAL

ASSOCIATIONS

PLAINS BELT SPECIES

1

cd

u

0

i

cd

to

o

rO

O

Eh

is

ed o

O Eh

m

3

l-H m

siS

o o o
cd

?-i cd i— i

UOffl

45

l 1 TO

<D <D £
£45

3 ZJ rQ

III

CD

swm

is

o q
cd cd

So

§ g

■s

A ^

'Sp?
s °

"o

^ TO

o o

Cd <D

pqu

q

cd

O)

O

i

cd

ro

cd

O

Sylvilagus audubonii

1

X

X

X

1

Cynomys ludovicianus

1

Cratogeomys castanops

6

2

Dipodomys spectabilis

x

X

2

X

1

Dipodomys merriami

45

55

24

4

7

Reithrodontomys megalotis

1

2

Peromyscus maniculatus

2

Onychomys torridus

3

Neotoma micropus

1

7

Canis latrans

2

Taxidea taxus

X

X

Mephitis macroura

1

Spilogale leucoparia

1

2

2

Antilocapra americana

X

WIDE RANGING SPECIES

Pipistrellus hesperus

3

1

Lepus californicus

X

2

X

X

X

X

X

Perognathus merriami

10

19

5

11

6

18

2

Peromyscus eremicus

2

Procyon lotor

X

Mephitis mephitis

5

Conepatus mesoleucus

1

Odocoileus hemionus

X

X

ROUGHLAND BELT SPECIES THAT

RANGE INTO EDGE OF PLAINS BELT

Perognathus nelsoni

1

Myotis yumanensis

1

Myotis volans

1

Lasiurus cinereus

1

Tadarida mexicana

1

Citellus interpres

X

Peromyscus pectoralis

1

Urocyon cinereoargenteus

1

Bassariscus astutus

1

70

strictly applicable only to the times of field work. Populations were
at a very low level in 1947. Some recovery was evident in 1948, but
the populations were still rather low.

Tobosa-Grama Association. — The tobosa-grama association was
trapped about one-fourth of a mile east of the Miller house by Blair
and Miller from April 17 to 19, 1948. It was trapped by Blair south¬
west of the Kimball house on June 8 and 9, 1948. It was trapped by
Roan and York from June 23 to 26, 1948, southwest of the Miller house.

No species of mammal except possibly the prairie-dog (Cynomys
ludovicianus) is limited to the tobosa-grama association. The hooded
skunk (Mephitis macroura) was taken in no other association, but this
wide-ranging carnivore probably occurs in other associations of the
Plains belt. The Merriam pocket-mouse (Perognathus merriami) appears
to be the most abundant and characteristic small mammal. The other
mammals are wide-ranging or tolerant species that occur in several
associations of the Plains belt.

Catclaw-Tcbosa Association. — This association was investigated in a
triangular area lying between the Miller house, the Kimball house, and
the Glidewell well. This association occurs far out on the alluvial fans.
Alluvial boulders are present in places. Some wind action on the soil
is evident in the slight mounding about the bases of the catclaw bushes.
Blair, Miller and Walker trapped this association from July 22 to
24, 1947. Roan and York trapped it from June 9 to 15, 1948. Kemp and
James trapped it from June 10 to 14. Webster and Collier trapped it
from June 16 to 21. Blair trapped it from June 8 to 10, 1948. Blair and
Miller trapped it from April 17 to 19, 1948.

The four-toed kangaroo-rat (Dipodomys merriami) was by far the
most common small mammal in both years. This species, along with
the Merriam pocket-mouse (Perognathus merriami), comprised the bulk
of the small mammal population of the catclaw-tobosa association.
Jackrabbits (Lepus ealifornieus) and desert cottontails (Sylvilagus
audubonii) were common both years in this association.

Creosote Bush-Catclaw-Blackbrush Association. — An area of this
association parallels the base of the mountains just north of the Roose¬
velt well. Fuge and Zschappel trapped this area on June 21, 1948.
Collier and Webster trapped it from June 22 to 26, 1948.

The four-toed kangaroo-rat (Dipodomys merriami) was the most
common small mammal. One rock pocket-mouse (Perognathus nelsoni),
taken here, was probably a wanderer from the Roughland belt. This
species was taken in no other association of the Plains belt. No attempt
was made to collect the carnivores of this association.

Mesquite-Huisache-Blackbrush Association. — This association was
studied in the southeast corner of the Miller ranch, a short distance
southeast of the Burford well. Blair, Collier, Fuge, Webster and
Zschappel trapped here from June 28 to July 3, 1948. Roan and York
trapped here from June 29 to July 3. No trapping of carnivores was
done in this association.

This association differs little in its mammalian components from
the catclaw-tobosa and creosote bush-catclaw-blackbrush associations.
The plains packrat (Neotoma micropus) was the only mammal taken in

71

this association that was not found also in the catclaw-tobosa associa¬
tion. Many old packrat nests indicated that this species is common at
times in this association. Desert cottontails ( Sylvilagus audubonii) and
jackrabbits (Lepus calif ornicus) appeared to be less common here than
in the catclaw-tobosa and catclaw-cedar associations.

Yucca-Blackbrush-Grama Association. — This association was inves¬
tigated at the eastern edge of the Miller ranch, east of the Kimball
house. • Blair, Fuge and Zschappel trapped here the nights of June 18
and 19, 1948.

The Merriam pocket-mouse (Perognathus merriami) and four-toed
kangaroo-rat (Dipodomys merriami) were the most common species. The
harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) was the only species found
here that was not taken in the other brush associations of the Plains
belt. The only other association in which this species was taken was
the tobosa-grama association.

Rlackbrush-Creosote Bush Association. — This association occurs on
an area of unsorted alluvial sand, gravel and small boulders about
seven miles west of Valentine. Blair, York and Anderson trapped this
area the night of June 13, 1948. Collier, Roan and Webster trapped
this area from July 5 to 8. No trapping was done for large mammals.

The mammalian aspect of this association is different from that
of any other association of the Plains belt. Species that were taken
here and in none of the other associations include the cactus mouse
(Peromyscus eremicus), deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) and
grasshopper mouse (Onychomys torridus). The plains packrat (Neotoma
micropus) was much more abundant than the mesquite-huisache-black-
brush association. The Merriam pocket-mouse (Perognathus merriami)
was decidedly more abundant than the four-toed kangaroo-rat (Dipodo¬
mys merriami). The kangaroo-rat exceeded the pocket-mouse in num¬
bers in all of the other associations in which both were found. Desert
cottontails (Sylvilagus audubonii) and jackrabbits (Lepus californicus)
were common in this association.

Catclaw-Cedar Association. — This association occurs on the alluvial
fans of the Plains belt and borders the canyon mouths. It was trapped
by Blair from June 6 to 7, 1948. Miller, Nance and Steincamp trapped
this association for carnivores from June 21 to July 8, 1948. Bats were
collected by shooting and by use of a stretched wire over a tank in
this association.

This association is intermediate in position and in mammalian
species between the Plains and Roughland life belts. It is arbitrarily
referred to the Plains belt. Roughland belt species include the five
species of bats, the antelope squirrel (Citellus interpres), the encinal
mouse (Peromyscus pectoralis), the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)
and the ringtail (Bassariscus astutus). Characteristic Plains belt species
include the jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), desert cottontail (Sylvilagus
audubonii), four-toed kangaroo-rat (Dipodomys merriami) and the little
spotted skunk (Spilogale leucoparia). Most of the species were rather
scarce in this association. This might be expected in such a transitional
community. Jackrabbits and desert cottontails were common here, and
they appeared to be at least as numerous here as in any association of
the Plains belt.

72

ROIJGHLAND LIFE BELT

The Rough land life belt includes the mountain mass of the Sierra
Vieja from the base of the mountains at an altitude of about 4500 feet
to the top of the mountains. The western slope of the mountains was
not investigated, but some part of the western slope possibly should be
included in this life belt. Six ecological associations are recognized in
the Roughland belt. The stream, bed association occurs on the floors of
the eastward draining canyons. The catclaw-grama association occupies
the canyon slopes and certain inter-canyon alluvial flats which are
above the present beds of the canyons. The grama-bluestem association
occurs on some of the steep canyon slopes. The rock bluff association
is limited to the massive, more or less vertical rock bluffs of the canyon
walls. The lechuguilla-beargrass association occurs over most of the
level or more or less rolling summits of the mountain mass. The
huisache-lechuguilla association occurs under favorable edaphic con¬
ditions on the level to rolling mesa top.

Twenty-three species of mammals are largely restricted to the
Roughland belt, although a few of these may extend a short distance
away from the mountains into transitional associations (Table II). The
known ecological distribution of mammals of the Roughland life belt
is discussed below.

Stream Bed Association. — This association occurs on the floors of
canyons. The only free water regularly available in the Roughland belt
is that of the water holes in this association. Small mammals were
trapped in this association in Box Canyon above its junction with ZH
Canyon. Kemp and James trapped there from June 6 to 9, 1948. Miller,
Nance and Steincamp trapped for carnivores in this association from
June 5 to 20, 1948.

The mammals of this association were largely the species that
occurred also in the more extensive catclaw-grama association. The
hog-nosed skunk (Conepatus mesoleucus) was taken in no other asso¬
ciation of the Roughland belt, and it probably is largely restricted in
the Roughland belt to this association. The big brown bat (Eptesicus
fuse us) was taken only in this association, but it is likely that it occurs
in others of the Roughland belt. Bats as a group, and particularly canyon
bats (Pipistrellus hesperus), were more abundant here than in any
other association of the region.

C ate 1 aw - G ram a Association. — This association was investigated on
the slopes of ZH, Cottonwood and Box Canyons. York and Roan trapped
there from June 6 to 8, 1948. Fuge and Zschappel trapped there from
June 6 to 10, and Webster and Collier trapped there from June 6 to 15.
Blair, Miller and Walker trapped this association from July 22 to 24,
1947, and Blair and Miller trapped it from April 17 to 19, 1948. Miller,
Nance and Steincamp trapped for carnivores from June 5 to 20, 1948.

This was one of the major associations of the Roughland belt.
Twenty-two of the 32 species of mammals recorded from the Roughland
belt were taken in this association. The most abundant species of small
mammal was probably the encinal mouse (Peromyscus pectoralis). The
rock squirrel (Citellus variegatus) , antelope squirrel (Citellus interpres)
and the rock pocket-mouse (Perognathus nelsoni) were fairly common

73

Table II

Records of Mammals from the Ecological Association of the Roughland
Life Belt, Sierra Vieja Biotic District. The symbol x indicates sight
records or other evidence of presence, where specimens were not
collected.

SPECIES OF MAMMALS

RECORDS

FROM ECOLOGICAL

ASSOCIATIONS

ROUGHLAND BELT SPECIES

Stream Bed

Catclaw-

Grama

Grama-Blue-

Stem

1

Rock Bluff |

Lechuguilla-

Beargrass

Huisache-

Lechuguilla

Myotis thysanodes

1

Myotis yumanensis

1

1

Myotis californicus

4

Eptesicus fuscus

2

Lasiurus cinereus

X

Flecotus rafinesquii

5

Antrozous pallidus

2

2

Tadarida mexicana

1

Sylvilagus robustus

1

1

1

Citellus variegatus

X

9

X

1

Citellus interpres

1

3

X

Thomomys bottae

4

8

2

Perognathus nelsoni

1

6

1

Peromyscus pectoralis

3

13

12

5

9

Sigmodon ochrognathus

1

Neotoma albigula

1

Erethizon epixanthum

X

Urocyon cinereoargenteus

X

4

X

X

Bassariscus astutus

2

2

X

Felis rufus

1

4

X

X

Felis concolor

2

Tayassu angulatum

X

WIDE RANGING SPECIES

Pipistrellus hesperus

31

4

Lepus californicus

X

Perognathus merriami

1

6

Peromyscus eremicus

1

Mephitis mephitis

1

Conepatus mesoleucus

2

Procyon lotor

X

Odocoileus hemionus

X

X

X

X

PLAINS BELT SPECIES THAT RANGE

INTO EDGE OF ROUGHLAND BELT

Cratogeomys castanops

1

74

in this association. Bats fed in considerable numbers over this associa¬
tion.

Grama-Bluestem Association. — This association was found only on
steep slopes of the canyon sides. The encinal mouse ( Per omy sens pector-
alis), which was the most common small mammal, was more abundant
here than in any other association. The mountain cotton rat (Sigmodon
cchrognathus) appears to be limited to this association. The white-
throated packrat (Neotcma albignla) was taken in no other association,
but old signs, presumably made by this species, were seen elsewhere
in the Roughland belt.

Rock Bluff Association. — This association occurs on the sheer rock
walls of the canyons. Miller, Nance and Steincamp trapped here for
small mammals from June 25 to July 8, 1948. No trapping was done
for carnivores in this association.

Relatively few species of mammals were recorded from the rock
bluff association. The species recorded there are species that range
widely in these associations of the Roughland belt. The canyon bat
(Pipistrellus hesperus) and some of the other bats taken in the stream
bed and catclaw-grama associations probably roost in the crevices of the
rock bluffs.

Lechuguill a-Beargr ass Association. — This association occurs widely
over the comparatively level to rolling mesa tops. Kemp and James
trapped there for small mammals from June 15 to 27, 1948. Zschappel
and Fuge trapped there from June 11 to 17. Miller, Nance and Stein¬
camp trapped there for carnivores from June 5 to 20.

The mountain pocket-gopher Thomomys bottae) is probably the
most abundant small mammal of this association. It was more numer¬
ous here than in any other association. The striped skunk (Mephitis
mephitis) and the cactus mouse (Peromyscus eremicus) were taken in
the Roughland belt only in this association. Both of these species were
taken also> in the Plains belt. The thin soil and great exposure to sun
and wind probably account for the comparatively desertic conditions
of this association. Scarcity of food and cover for most species and the
paucity of retreats possibly account for the scanty mammalian fauna
of the lechuguilla-beargrass association.

Huisache-Lechuguilla Association. — An area of this association in
Vieja Pass was trapped for small mammals by Reagan from June 19 to
25, 1948. No trapping was done there for carnivores.

The huisache-lechuguilla association differs considerably from the
other association of the mesa top, the lechuguilla-beargrass association.
Merriam pocket-mice (Perognathus merriami) appeared to be common
here, but were not taken in the lechuguilla-beargrass association. The
mountain cottontail (Sylvilagus robustus) was taken here but not in
that association.

RIO GRANDE BASIN DISTRICT

The valley of the Rio Grande in western Presidio County seems
best considered a different biotic district from the Sierra Vieja moun¬
tain mass and the Valentine Plain. The distribution of the birds and
reptiles, to be discussed later, affords the strongest argument for separa¬
tion of the Rio Grande Basin as a distinct biotic district.

75

Five ecological associations have been investigated at a station
about five miles northwest of Porvenir, Texas. The cottonwood associa¬
tion borders the Rio Grande. The mammals of this association were not
studied. The salt cedar -mesquite association occurs on the flood-plains
adjacent to the river. The catclaw-creosote bush association occurs on
sandy flats bordering the salt cedar-mesquite association. The old field
association results from clearing of the salt cedar-mesquite association
of the river flood-plain. The ocotillo-creosote bush association occurs on
the low gravelly hills adjacent to the flood-plain of the river.

Only one species of mammal, the desert pocket-mouse (Perognathus
penicillatus), was found in this district but not in the Sierra Vieja dis¬
trict. This was the most abundant, small mammal of the Rio Grande
Basin district. The four-toed kangaroo-rat (Dipodomys merriami) is of
a different geographic race (ambiguus) from the race merriami of the
Plains belt of the Sierra Vieja district (see Blair, in press). The ecologi¬
cal distribution of the mammals of the Rio Grande Basin district, so far
as it is known, is as follows.

Salt Cedar-Mesquite Association. — Miller trapped small mammals
in this association on the night of June 16, 1948. Mammals were scarce
here, and the short period of trapping gives little information other
than that they were scarce. Two desert cottontails (Sylvilagus audubonii
minor) and one desert pocket-mouse (Perognathus penicillatus eremicus)
were taken here.

Catclaw-Creosote Bush Association. — Miller trapped small mammals
in this association on June 15 and 17, 1948. Kemp and James trapped
here from June 15 to 17. No trapping was done for carnivores. The
desert pocket-mouse (Perognathus penicillatus), with 34 recorded, was
the most abundant small mammal. The four-toed kangaroo-rat (Dipodo¬
mys merriami) with 28 records, was almost as numerous as the pocket-
mouse. One Merriam pocket-mouse (Perognathus merriami gilvus) was
taken.

Old Field Association. — Flury and Jameson trapped for small mam¬
mals in the old field association the night of July 1, 1948. The small
mammals of this association are the common mammals of the catclaw-
creosote bush association. Six desert pocket-mice and three four-toed
kangaroo-rats were caught here.

Ocotillo-Creosote Bush Association. — No trapping was done in this

association, and the association list of mammals is therefore incomplete.
One antelope squirrel (Citellus interpres) was shot in this association.

ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES

A total of 46 species of mammals was recorded from the Sierra
Vieja district and the nearby Rio Grande Basin district. The taxonomic
arrangement of the mammals in the following list follows that of
Simpson (1945). All specimens here referred to are deposited in the
Texas Natural History Collection of the Department of Zoology, Uni¬
versity of Texas.

Myotis yumanensis yumanensis (H. Allen). Yuma Bat. This bat was
taken only in the Roughland belt and on the ZH alluvial fan adjacent
to that belt. Two specimens were collected in the stream bed associa-

76

tion of lower ZH Canyon, and one was taken in the catclaw-grama
association at the old fort. One was shot over a tank in the catclaw-
cedar association of the ZH alluvial fan.

Myotis thysanodes thysanodes Miller. Fringe-tailed Bat. One speci¬
men fitting the description of this species as given by Miller and Allen
(1928) was collected at the old fort in the catclaw-grama association
near lower ZH Canyon. This species has been recorded from the Chisos
Mountains by Borell and Bryant (1942).

Myotis volans interior Miller. Brown Bat. One specimen of this
species was collected over a tank in the catclaw-cedar association of
the ZH alluvial fan. This is the second record, of which we know, of
this bat in Texas. One specimen was reported by Blair (1940) from the
Davis Mountains.

Myotis californicus californicus (Audubon and Bachman). California
Bat. This bat was taken only in the Roughland belt. Four individuals
were shot over the stream bed association of ZH and Cottonwood Can¬
yons. This appears to be a common and widespread species in the Chi-
huahuan biotic province of Texas. Davis and Robertson (1944) took
this species in Culberson County. Borell and Bryant (1942) reported
the species from the Big Bend region.

Pipistrellus hesperus maxim us Hatfield. Canyon Bat. This was the
most common bat in the Roughland life belt of the Sierra Vieja region,
and it occurred also in the Plains life belt. These little bats were the
first to fly in the evening. They fed mostly over the catclaw-grama
association and over the Emory’s oaks and other trees of the stream
bed association. They were also frequent visitors at the water holes in
ZH, Cottonwood and Box Canyons.

Thirty-one canyon bats were shot over the stream bed association
of ZH and Cottonwood Canyons. Three were shot over the catclaw-
grama association of the canyon sides. One was taken in a building at
the old fort in the catclaw-grama association. The species was taken at
water holes in two associations of the Plains belt. Two were shot over
the tobosa-grama association near the Miller house on July 24, 1947,
and one was shot over a tank just east of the Miller house in the same
association in June, 1948. One was taken in the catclaw-cedar associa¬
tion of the ZH alluvial fan by means of a wire stretched over a tank.

Eptesicus fuscus pallidus Young. Big Brown Bat. Two specimens
were shot over water holes in the stream bed association of lower ZH
Canyon. One was taken on June 5, the other on June 8, 1948.

Lasiurus cinereus (Beauvois). Hoary Bat. One specimen was shot
over a tank at the mouth of ZH Canyon in the catclaw-cedar associa¬
tion on June 7, 1948. Although no other specimens were taken, large
bats that were presumably of this species were seen at various places
in ZH and Cottonwood Canyons, where they were feeding about the
Emory’s oaks in the stream bed association. These bats flew very late,
and they usually did not appear until nearly dark.

Plecotus rafinesquii pallescens (Miller). Long-eared Bat. Five speci¬
mens were taken in the buildings of the old fort in the catclaw-grama
association. Two of these were caught on July 23, 1947. The others
were taken in June, 1948. This species was not taken in the Plains belt.

77

Antrozous pallidus pallidus (LeConte). Pallid Bat. Two specimens
were caught in the buildings of the old fort in the catclaw-grama asso¬
ciation. Two were shot over water holes in the stream bed association
of middle and lower ZH Canyon. This species was not taken in the
Plains belt.

Tadarida mexicana (Saussure). Mexican Freetail Bat. This bat was
rather scarce in the region, and only two specimens were collected.
One was caught in a building at the old fort in the catclaw-grama
association on April 18, 1948. One was taken June 11, 1948, by means of
a wire stretched over a tank at the mouth of ZH Canyon in the catclaw-
cedar association.

Lepus calif ornicus texianus Waterhouse. Jackrabbit. This species was
common in some associations of the Plains belt, and a few individuals
were seen in the edge of the mountains. Jackrabbits were abundant in
the catclaw-cedar and catclaw-tobosa associations of the alluvial fans
in July, 1947, and in the spring and sumer of 1948. They were also
seen in all of the other associations of the Plains belt. Two specimens
were collected in the catclaw-tobosa association of the ZH alluvial fan.
A few individuals were seen in the Roughland belt, in the catclaw-
grama association of lower ZH Canyon.

Sylvilagus audubonii minor (Mearns). Desert Cottontail. This species
was common in some associations of the Plains belt, but it was not found
in the Roughland belt. It was most numerous in the blackbrush-creosote
bush association about seven miles west of Valentine. At this place the
rabbits were utilizing old burrows of the banner-tail kangaroo-rat
(Dipodomys spectabilis). One specimen was collected in the catclaw-
tobosa association near the Kimball house. One was collected in the
catclaw-cedar association of the ZH alluvial fan, where the species was
fairly common. Several were seen in the creosote bush-catclaw-black-
brush association near the Roosevelt well, and a few were seen in the
mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association near the Burford well. The
species showed an obvious preference for associations including desert
scrub vegetation.

Two specimens were collected in the salt cedar-mesquite associa¬
tion along the Rio Grande, about five miles northwest of Porvenir.

Sylvilagus robustus (Bailey). Mountain Cottontail. This species was
restricted to the Roughland life belt, where it was scarce. One was
shot by Burke in the catclaw-grama association of lower Box Canyon.
One was shot by Flury in the stream bed association of Box Canyon.
One was taken by Miller in the huisache-lechuguilla association of
Vieja Pass. One was seen by Blair in the catclaw-grama association of
lower ZH Canyon. These rabbits were very shy, and they were usually
nocturnal in their activities.

Cynomys ludovicianus arizonensis Mearns. Prairie-dog. A prairie-
dog town was located, and one specimen was collected in the tobosa-
grama association about 10 miles north of the Miller ranch house. Con¬
trol measures are probably responsible for the relative scarcity of
prairie-dogs in this area.

Citellus variegatus couchii (Baird). Rock Squirrel. Rock squirrels
were common in the canyons of the Roughland life belt. This species

78

was most commonly found in the rock bluff association and on the
rock slides of the catclaw-grama association. The rock squirrels were
most active during the middle of the day and the early afternoon. One
was shot by Miller in the rock bluff association of ZH Canyon on July
24, 1947. Nine were collected in ZH, Box and Knox Canyons in June
and July, 1948. Three of four specimens collected between June 10 and
16 had molt lines on the neck or shoulders. Two of three collected on
June 28 had similar molt lines. Two collected on July 6 were in fresh
pelage and showed no molt lines. Much of the color variation in this
series, is due to the fading of melanin pigments in the old pelage of
the rump and tail. The older the pelage the more reddish it appears.
This fading is not unexpected in a species that is active on bare rock
during the 'sunniest part of the day. The animals in faded pelage are
rather inconspicuous on the predominant rocks of the region, which
are weathered to a reddish color.

Citellus interpres (Merriam). Antelope Squirrel. This shy little
ground squirrel was common in several associations of the Roughland
belt and occurred also in the catclaw-cedar association of the alluvial
fans. Like the rock squirrels, these animals were most active during
the hottest parts of the day. The antelope squirrels were most numer¬
ous in the catclaw-grama association, but individuals were seen even
on sheer bluffs of the canyon walls (rock bluff association). Dens of
the antelope squirrels were usually located beneath massive boulders
on relatively level ground. Foods most commonly found in the vicinity
of the burrows included the fruits of the Mexican walnut (Juglans
rupestris) , the Texas mountain laurel (Sophora secundiflora) and the
Mexican buckeye (Ungnadia speciosa) . Four specimens were collected
in lower Knox, ZH, and Box Canyons of the Miller ranch. One was
collected by Blair in the ocotillo-creosote bush association about five
miles northwest of Porvenir.

Thomomys bottae pervarius Goldman. Mountain Pocket-gopher.
This pocket-gopher appears to be limited to the Roughland belt, where
it is an abundant and widely distributed species. One was taken in the
catclaw-grama association on an alluvial flat near the junction of ZH
and Box Canyons by Blair in July, 1947. Reagan and Await took the
species in three associations. Three were trapped at the above locality,
and one plains pocket-gopher was also taken there. Two were caught
in the huisache-lechuguilla association, and eight were taken in the
lechuguilla-bear grass association in Vieja Pass. Mounds were observed
on slopes of greater than 45 degrees inclination, but no specimens were
taken from these mounds. The mounds of these gophers were closely
associated with clumps of lechuguilla in the lechuguilla-beargrass and
huisache-lechuguilla associations. In the catclaw-grama association the
mounds were usually located in the clumps of catclaw. It is interest¬
ing that in this region no mountain pocket-gophers were found in the
stream bed association, for in the Davis Mountains Blair (1940) found
the species restricted to that association.

One burrow in the lechuguilla-beargrass association was excavated
by Reagan and Await. It was found to have two main branches and a
prominent secondary branch given off by one of these branches. The

79

two main branches entered a nest chamber at an angle of about 40
degrees. These tunnels extended out 20 and 30 feet, respectively, from
the nest chamber. Except near the nest, the roof of the tunnels was from
two to four inches below the surface of the ground. The nest chamber
was situated under a large rock and two feet below the surface of the
ground.

Lateral tunnels were few in number and very short (from six
inches to one foot long) and terminated in plugged openings. Most of
these laterals ended in clumps of lechuguilla plants, reported by Bailey
(1905) to be the principal food of this species in western Texas. In
many places we noted dead lechuguilla plants in conjunction with
mountain gopher workings, and these were apparently killed by de¬
struction of their roots by the gophers.

The nest chamber was circular, 16 inches in diameter, with from
four to five inches between the floor and roof. Three tunnels led away
from the nest chamber. In addition to the previously mentioned two
main tunnels, there was a third tunnel which ended six feet from the
nest in a dead end. The nest chamber was littered with dried grass
and some fecal matter. No food caches were found, but remnants of
food materials were found in the tunnels. These included: lechuguilla
roots and meristem, roots of agarita (Berberis trifoliata) and hairy
grama (Bouteloua hirsuta). One animal had its pouches filled with
resurrection plant ( Selaginella sp.).

Compared with the burrow of the plains pocket-gopher, the burrow
of the mountain pocket-gopher was less extensive and less branched;
it did not connect with the burrows of other individuals; it had a smaller
invertebrate fauna; and it was less neat.

Cratogeomys castanops lacrimalis Goldman. Plains Pocket-gopher.
This pocket-gopher is largely restricted to the Plains belt in this region,
but specimens were taken in one association of the Roughland belt. In
the latter belt, one was trapped on an alluvial flat occupied by the
catclaw-grama association and located at the junction of ZH and Box
Canyons. The mountain pocket-gopher (Thomomys bottae pervarius)
occurred on this same flat, and three specimens were collected about
350 yards from where the plains pocket-gopher was taken.

In the Plains belt, the plains pocket-gopher was most abundant in
the tobosa-grama association, but it was taken also in the catclaw-
tobosa association of the ZH Canyon alluvial fan. Numerous mounds
were seen at the bases of catclaw bushes, and two specimens were col¬
lected in the catclaw-tobosa association. Five specimens were collected
in the tobosa-grama association in the 1948 work by Reagan and
Await. One was taken there by Blair and Miller in July, 1947. In this
association the only mounds observed were on or near earthen dams,
which are used in this region for the prevention of erosion. The soil
was relatively moist near these dams, and the grass cover was greener
than in other parts of the basin.

A burrow from which an adult female and a young adult male
were trapped in the tobosa-grama association was excavated by Reagan
and Await. This burrow consisted of three main branches radiating
from a fairly central point. The longest of the three branches extended
150 feet westward from the junction of the three. This branch was

80

separated from the burrow of another gopher by 14 inches of loose
plugging. A second main branch extended 90 feet north of the junction
of the three, and it was separated from the burrow of another gopher
by six feet of rather compact plugging. The third main branch extended
60 feet southeast of the junction of the three, and its excavation was
abandoned when it passed under an earthen dam.

The depth of the tunnel roof below the surface of the ground
varied from two inches near mounds to 21 inches at other places. The
lumen of the tunnels measured about 3.5 inches vertically and about
three inches laterally. The main branches of the burrow received many
secondarily branched lateral tunnels. The terminal branches ended in
plugged openings to the surface. The nature of. the soil permitted the
tracing of tunnels which had been plugged for considerable distances
and apparently for considerable periods of time.

Four nest chambers were found along the course of the main run.
Three of these were open, while the fourth had been filled with dirt,
feces, and dried grass. The nest chambers consisted of spheroidal hol¬
lows set about two inches from the main run. The dimensions, of the
nest chambers were the same in all cases and were as follows: axis
parallel to main run, 7.5 inches; axis perpendicular to main run, 5.5
inches; vertical axis, 14 inches. The floor of the nest chamber was
four inches below the level of the main run and was filled to that level
with dried grass. No fecal matter was found in the nest material.

Two food caches were encountered a short distance from fresh
mounds near the junction of the three main branches. These were
lateral branches which had, at one time, opened to the surface. They
had now been plugged to a point 13 inches from the main run. These
side tunnels were loosely filled with tufts of green grama grass which
had been cut at the roots. No other food was found in this burrow.

The material used for plugging unused portions of the burrow
consisted of soil, fecal matter, and dried grass in varying proportions.
The high content of fecal matter and dried grass in some lateral tun¬
nels apparently indicated an attempt at house cleaning on the part of
the gopher.

Several invertebrates were collected from the tunnels of gophers
both by excavation and by use of molasses traps, but these have not
been identified.

Perognathus merriami gilvus Osgood. Merriam Pocket-mouse. This
pocket-mouse was taken in both the Plaiins and Roughland life belts.
It was the second most abundant mammal of the Plains belt, where it
was exceeded in numbers, only by the four-toed kangaroo-rat. Merriam
pocket-mice were taken in all of the associations of this belt. Nineteen
were trapped in the catclaw-tobosa association north of the .Miller house.
Eighteen were caught in the blackbrush -creosote bush association about
seven miles west of Valentine. Five were taken in the creosote bush-
catclaw-folackbrush association near the Roosevelt well. Eleven were
obtained in the mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association near the Bur-
ford well. Ten were caught in the tobosa-grama association. Six were
trapped in the yucca-blackbrush-grama association east of the Kimball
house. Two were caught in the catclaw-cedar association of the ZH
alluvial fan.

81

This species was uncommon in the Roughland belt. Six were trapped
in the huisache-lechuguilla association of Vieja Pass. One was caught
by hand at night in the catclaw-grama association near the old fort,
between ZH and Box Canyons.

These pocket-mice are rather intermediate in many characters
between Perognathus merriami from Live Oak, McMullen, Eastland,
Fisher and Throckmorton Counties, Texas, and Perognathus flavus from
Otero County, New Mexico, and Jackson County, Oklahoma. The large
interparietal, large body size and comparatively long tail are taken to
indicate that all of our material is assignable to the species merriami.
The size of the lower premolar and the degree of inflation of the
mastoids are quite variable and of little value in determining the species
of these mice. The pocket-mice from this locality are paler and more
buffy and have more conspicuous post-auricular spots than do merriami
from southern and north-central Texas. The conspicuous postauricular
spots resemble those of flavus.

On individual was taken in the Rio Grande Basin district. This
mouse was taken in the catclaw-creosote bush association about five
miles northwest of Porvenir.

Perognathus penicillatus eremicus Mearns, Desert Pocket-mouse.
This species appears to be limited in our region to the sandy soils of
the Rio Grande Basin district. This pocket-mouse was the most abund¬
ant mammal along the Rio Grande about five miles northwest of
Porvenir. Thirty-four specimens were taken there in the catclaw-
creosote bush association by Miller, Kemp and James. Six specimens
were taken in an old field there on the Rio Grande flood-plain. One
was trapped there in the salt cedar-mesquite association.

Perognathus nelsoni collis Blair. Rock Pocket-mouse. This species
was rather rare in the Roughland belt, where it was taken in three
associations. Six specimens were taken in the catclaw-grama associa¬
tion of ZH and Box Canyons. One was taken in the stream bed asso¬
ciation of Box Canyon, and one was caught in the grama-bluestem asso¬
ciation of lower ZH Canyon. The steep, rock-littered slopes of the
canyon walls seem to be preferred by this pocket-mouse.

One individual was taken in the creosote bush-catclaw-blackbrush
association of the Plains belt. This animal was trapped just north of the
Roosevelt well and about one-half mile from the base of the mountains.
It is doubtful that this saxicolous species ranges very far into the Plains
belt.

Dipodomys spectabilis baileyi Goldman. Banner-tail Kangaroo-rat.

This kangaroo-rat was taken only in the Plains belt, where it seemed
to be rather unevenly distributed. One was trapped in the catclaw-
tobosa association near the Glidewell well, but a predator robbed the
trap and left only the tail as evidence. One was dug out of a den in
the mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association near the Burford well,
and one was trapped at the same locality. Several active dens were
seen there. Several active dens were seen in the tobosa-grama associa¬
tion east of the Miller house in July, 1947. These dens were being used
in 1948 by four-toed kangaroo-rats (Dipodomys merriami) and by lizards
( Cnemidophorus perplexus and Holbrookia maculata) . Old dens were

82

seen in 1948 in the blackbrush-creosote bush association, about seven
miles west of Valentine.

Dipodomys merriami merriami Mearns. Four-toed Kangaroo-rat.
Specimens of Dipodomys merriami from the Valentine Plain are re¬
ferred to the subspecies merriami because of their dull, dark coloration.
This was the commonest small mammal in all ecological associations of
the Plains belt except the tobosa-grama and catclaw-cedar associations.
None was taken in the former and only one in the latter association.

Forty-five were trapped in the extensive area of catclaw-tobosa
association between the Miller house, Kimball house, and Glidewell
well. Fifty-five were trapped in the creosote bush-catclaw-blackbrush
association near the Roosevelt well. Twenty-four were taken in the
mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association near the Burford well. Four
were obtained in the yucca-blackbrush-grama association east of the
Kimball house. Seven were taken in the blackbrush-creosote bush asso¬
ciation about seven miles west of Valentine.

This species appeared to be absent from the Roughland belt. One
specimen was trapped on the rough stony soil of the catclaw-cedar as¬
sociation on the ZH alluvial fan, but this type of soil appears to be a
rather effective barrier to the distribution of this species.

Dipodomys merriami ambiguus Merriam. Four-toed Kangaroo-rat.
Specimens of Dipodomys merriami from the Rio Grande Basin are re¬
ferred to the subspecies ambiguus because of their pale, relatively
bright coloration. This species was abundant on the sandy soil adjacent
to the Rio Grande about five miles northwest of Porvenir. Twenty-
eight specimens were trapped there in the catclaw-creosote bush asso¬
ciation. Three were taken in an old field on the Rio Grande flood-plain.

Reithrcdontomys megalotis megalotis (Baird). Harvest Mouse. Har¬
vest mice were found only in the Plains life belt in the Sierra Vieja
district. The species was scarce in both 1947 and 1948, and specimens
were taken in only two ecological associations of the basin. One was
trapped in the tobosa-grama association just east of the Miller house
on April 19, 1948, by Blair and Miller. Two were taken in the yucca-
blackbrush-grama association east of the Kimball well in June, 1948.

It is surprising that this species was not taken in the Roughland
belt of this area. Blair (1940) found this species common in the Rough-
land belt of the nearby Davis Mountain region, where the species
ranged up to an altitude of 6100 feet.

Percmyscus eremicus eremicus (Baird). Cactus Mouse. The cactus
mouse was rare in the Sierra Vieja region, but it was taken in both the
Roughland and Plains life belts. One was taken by James in the
lechuguilla-beargrass association on the mesa south of Box Canyon.
Two were taken in the blackbrush-creosote bush association about
seven miles west of Valentine. This normally saxicolous species was
living far from any rock outcrops where it was taken in the blackbrush-
creosote bush association.

Peromyscus maniculatus blandus Osgood. Deermouse. This species
was remarkably scarce in our region in both 1947 and 1948, and it was
found only in the blackbrush-creosote bush association of the Plains

83

life belt. Two specimens were trapped by Collier in this association
about seven miles west of Valentine in July, 1948.

Peromyscus pectoralis laceianus Bailey. Encinal Mouse. Forty-three
mice of the Peromyscus boy Hi group were taken in the Sierra Vieja re¬
gion. Thirty-eight of these mice appear unquestionably to belong to
the species pectoralis. The tarsal joint is white or nearly so, and in all
of these specimens the size, of the tail annulations is comparable to the
size of the tail rings in specimens of pectoralis from Rocksprings, Texas.
Skeletal characters are considerably variable, and some skull measure¬
ments are intermediate between the measurements given by Osgood
(1909) for Peromyscus b. attwateri and Peromyscus p. laceianus. Length
of the palatine slits is a fairly constant character, and, along with the
external characters of the small tail scales and white tarsal joint, indi¬
cates these mice to be of the species pectoralis.

Four of 13 specimens from the catclaw-grama association and one
of 12 from the grama-bluestem association are somewhat intermediate
between the Rocksprings pectoralis and specimens of Peromyscus b.
attwateri from Limpia Canyon in the Davis Mountains. Some dusky
hairs extend onto the tarsal joint, but these dark hairs are much fewer
than on the tarsal joint of the Davis mountain attwateri. The caudal
scales are intermediate in size between those of attwateri and those of
the other mice from the Sierra Vieja. Pending further investigation of
the relationships of these twTo species in Texas, these intermediate
specimens are referred to pectoralis.

Brush mice were the commonest small mammals of the Roughland
belt. Thirteen were caught in the catclaw-grama association. Twelve
were taken in the grama-bluestem association. Nine were trapped in
the lechuguilla-beargrass association of the mesa top. Five were taken
in the rock bluff association of ZH and Cottonwood Canyons. Three
were taken in the stream bed association. One specimen was obtained
in the catclaw-cedar association at the mouth of ZH Canyon in the edge
of the Plains belt. There is no evidence that this saxicolous species
ranges more than a few yards from the base of the mountains.

Onychomys torridus torridus (Coues). Grasshopper Mouse. Grass¬
hopper mice were scarce in the region, and the species was taken in
only one association of the Plains life belt. Three were trapped in July,
1948, in the blackbrush-creosote bush association about seven miles
west of Valentine. None was taken in the Roughland belt. This was
surprising, for Blair (1940) found that in the Davis Mountains this
species occurred in the Roughland belt and ranged up to an altitude
of 6000 feet.

Sigmodon ochrognathus Bailey. Mountain Cotton Rat. One was
trapped by C. E. Miller in the grama-bluestem association near the
mouth of ZH Canyon on June 13, 1948. There were old trails and old
droppings in this association at this locality. The area of grama-blue¬
stem association in which the specimen was taken and in which the
old signs were seen was on a very steep, rock-littered slope. It seems
likely that the local distribution of this species is considerably limited
by grazing practices in the region. Heavy grazing depletes the grass
cover that this species seems to require from all but the steepest slopes.
The result is the limitation of this species to those steep slopes.

84

Neotoma micropus canescens Allen. Plains Packrat. This species
was taken in two associations of the Plains life belt, but no evidence
of its presence was found in the other associations of that belt or in
the Roughland belt. One was trapped in the mesquite-huisache-black-
brush association near the Burford well. Numerous old dens were seen
at this locality. Seven were trapped in the black-brush-creosote bush
association about seven miles west of Valentine. Most of the dens seen
at this station were active ones. In some cases the packrats were using
the old dens of the banner-tail kangaroo-rat (Dipo&omys spectabilis.)

Neotoma albigula robusta Blair. White-throated Packrat. This was
the only species of packrat taken in the Roughland belt, and it was
rare there in both 1947 and 1948. One was trapped on June 6, 1948, on
a rock slide in the grama-bluestem association just inside the mouth
cf ZH Canyon. This animal entered the trap between one and two
hours after daylight. Old packrat sign, presumably made by this species,
was seen in the catclaw-grama, rock bluff and stream bed associations
of ZH Canyon.

Erethizon epixanthum subspecies. Porcupine. There is only one sight
record of this species from the region. Miller examined the foot of a
porcupine that had been trapped at the head of West Well Canyon on
September 14, 1948.

Canis latrans texensis Bailey. Coyote. Coyotes were fairly common
in the Plains belt of the Sierra Vieja region. Two were collected by
Miller in the blackbrush-creosote bush association. One of them had
fed on jackrabbit (Lepus calif ornicus). A skeleton was picked up 12
miles southwest of Chispa. Another skeleton was donated by James
Bankert. We saw one old lactating female, trapped by a government
trapper on June 13, that had two pegged feet from previous trappings.

Urccyon cinereoargenteus scotti Mearns. Gray Fox. These little
foxes were common in the Roughland belt and probably ranged over
all of the ecological associations of this life belt. A subadult male was
shot by Miller at the old fort in the catclaw-grama association on July
22, 1947. Two specimens were trapped in 1948 in the catclaw-grama
association, and one skeleton was picked up there. One of the trapped
animals was being attacked by a golden eagle when Miller arrived at
the trap. This fox was lactating. One was shot by Miller in the huisache-
lechuguilla association of Vieja Pass. One specimen from the catclaw-
cedar association was donated by J. Bankert. One was seen in the
grama-bluestem association near the mouth of ZH Canyon, and two
were seen in the stream bed association of Fox Hollow.

Prccyon lotor subspecies. Raccoon. No specimens were collected.
Tracks were seen around tanks in the tobosa-grama association of the
Plains belt and around water holes in the stream bed association of the
Roughland belt. Tracks were seen along the Rio Grande about five
miles north of Porvenir.

Bassariscus astutus flavus Rhoads. Ringtail. This is strictly a species
of the Roughland belt. Two were trapped in the catclaw-grama as¬
sociation of ZH Canyon, and one was trapped in the stream bed asso¬
ciation of the same canyon. One was found dead in the mouth of Knox
Canyon. The ringtail probably ranges through all of the associations of

85

the Roughland belt. One was seen at night in a dead Emory’s oak in
ZH Canyon. It took refuge in the hollow trunk of the oak, which showed
signs of much use and had many ringtail droppings about it. One was
found dead, presumably by drowning, in a tank at the mouth of ZH
Canyon, in the catclaw-cedar association.

Taxidea taxus berlandieri Baird. Badger. This species was found
only in the Plains belt. Badger diggings were seen in the catclaw-
tobosa association near the Roosevelt well and in the blackbrush-
creosote bush association about seven miles west of Valentine. One
specimen was donated by James Bankert, and another was donated
by C. Espy Miller.

Mephitis, mephitis varians Gray. Striped Skunk. This was the com¬
monest skunk of the Sierra Vieja region, and a total of six specimens
was collected. The records indicate that this species probably prefers
relatively level ground of both the Plains and Roughland life belts.
One was taken in the lechuguilla-beargrass association on top of the
mesa south of ZH Canyon. This animal was very mangy and emaciated.
Five specimens were taken in the tobosa-grama association of the
Plains belt. One of these was even more mangy and emaciated than
the one from the mesa. It is interesting that this species was not taken
in the canyons of the Roughland l^elt.

Mephitis macroura milleri Mearns. Hooded Skunk. This was the
rarest skunk of the Sierra Vieja region, and only one specimen was
obtained. This specimen was donated by C. Espy Miller after it had
been caught in a trap in the tobosa-grama association at the Miller
house. This individual is in the black phase and has only vestiges of
the white lateral stripes. The neck ruff is black, as is the entire dorsal
surface of the body. There is a very narrow white face stripe.

Spilogale leucoparia Merriam. Little Spotted Skunk. This species
was taken only in the Plains belt, where it was recorded from three
ecological associations. One was taken on July 22, 1947, near the Miller
house in the tobosa-grama association. Two were taken in 1948 in the
catclaw-tobosa association of the Knox alluvial fan, and one was taken
in the catclaw-cedar association of the ZH alluvial fan. We found no
evidence of this species in the Roughland belt, but Blair (1940) found
the species in the Davis Mountains at an altitude of 5500 feet in the
Roughland belt of that mountain range.

Conepatus mesoleucus mearnsi Merriam. Hog-nosed Skunk. This
species was taken in both the Roughland and Plains life belts. One was
killed by Alvin Flury in the stream bed association of Knox Canyon.
One was found dead in an abandoned steel trap in the stream bed
association at the junction of Cottonwood and ZH Canyons. One was
found dead in the catclaw-cedar association of the Knox Canyon alluvial
fan, and another was found dead in the same association of the ZH
Canyon alluvial fan. One was trapped in the catclaw-tobosa association
of the Plains belt.

Felis rufus bailey i (Merriam). Wildcat. This species was common
in the Roughland belt, but no records were obtained from the Plains
belt. One specimen was donated by James Bankert. This one was
trapped at 96 well. Four skeletons were picked up in ZH Canyon. One

86

skeleton was found about 12 miles southwest of Chispa. This species
probably ranges over all of the associations of the Roughland belt.

Felis concolor stanleyana Goldman. Mountain-lion. This species
occurs in the Roughland life belt in spite of constant control measures.
Two skulls in the Texas Natural History Collection were donated by
C. Espy Miller. One animal was killed in the mountains of the Miller
ranch in 1947. The other was killed in West Well Canyon about a week
after our field work was discontinued in July, 1948.

Tayassu angulatum angulatum (Cope). Javeline. Two adults and
one young of the year were observed by Miller in Hanley Spring
Canyon on September 20, 1948.

Odccoileus hemionus crooki (Mearns). Mule-deer. Mule-deer were
common in all of the associations of the Roughland belt except the
rock bluff association. They were also seen in the catclaw-cedar and
tobosa-grama associations of the Plains belt. In the latter association,
the deer were seen feeding early in the morning on several different
occasions. When disturbed there they ran to the mountains one or two
miles distant. A study of the food habits of the mule-deer was made by
A. W. Anderson and will be published elsewhere.

Antilccapra americana mexicana Merriam. Pronghorn. This species
was scarce in the Plains life belt, and none was seen in the Roughland
belt. Three were observed in the tobosa-grama association about six
miles north of the Miller house, and one was observed in the same
association about four miles east of the house.

FAUNAL RELATIONS OF THE MAMMALS

The mammals of the Siera Vieja biotic district, as might be ex¬
pected, represent several different faunal elements (Table III). Twelve
of the 45 species are widely distributed forms that occur1 in many biotic
provinces of North America. The Roughland belt has a greater propor¬
tion of widely distributed species than the Plains belt due to the
presence of wide-ranging carnivores and bats. Fourteen species are
widely distributed in the western half of North America and occur
there in several biotic provinces. Two species, one restricted in our
region to the Plains belt and the other found in both life belts, have
their center of distribution in the Great Plains of central North Amer¬
ica. Twelve species, five restricted to the Plains belt, four restricted to
the Roughland belt, and three occurring in both, have their centers of
distribution in Mexico and range into our region from the south. Five
species are largely restricted to the Chihuahuan biotic province as
delimited by Dice (1943). These species include: Sylvilagus robustus,
Citellus interpres, Perognathus nelsoni, Sigmodon ochrognathus, re¬
stricted to the Roughland belt; and Spilogale leucoparia, restricted so
far as known to the Plains belt. The genus Spilogale is badly in need
of revision, and it is not unlikely that this presumably endemic species
will be found to be a geographic race of a widely distributed species.

The mammalian fauna of the Sierra Vieja biotic district, then,
includes a strong element (26.7%) of Mexican species and a strong
ica. The Great Plains element (4.4%) is negligible. There is a small
element (31.1%) of species widely distributed in western North Amer-

District, Southwestern Texas.

87

88

element (11.1%) of species that are largely restricted to the Chihuahuan
province. Since these are mostly Roughland belt forms, it is to be as¬
sumed that they probably originated under conditions of partial isola¬
tion in the mountains of this biotic province.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC RELATIONS OF THE SIERRA VIEJA REGION

The biogeography of the Trans-Pecos mountains and basins of
Texas is little known, and our knowledge of this region is not yet
sufficient for a detailed analysis of the biogeographic relationships of
this large and complex area. The data here presented and unpublished
data of our colleagues (York, Phillips and Thornton, and Jameson and
Flury) nevertheless permit a comparison of the Sierra Vieja region
with such other nearby areas as have been studied.

All of Trans-Pecos Texas except the Guadalupe Mountains, we
believe, should be included in the Chihuahuan biotic province. This
relationship already has been suggested by Blair (1940) and by Dice
(1943). The mammalian, avian, reptilian and amphibian faunas of the
Sierra Vieja region, as determined by us and our associates, show
strong affinities with the respective faunas of the Chihuahuan province
of northern Mexico. Approximately 11.1% of the mammals and 19.0%
of the reptiles and amphibians are species that are largely restricted
to the Chihuahuan biotic province as here limited. About 26.7% of the
mammals, 22.5% of the reptiles and amphibians, and 20.6% of the
birds are species with Mexican affinities that range into our region
from the south. Previous work with the mammals of the Davis Moun¬
tain region by Blair (1940), with the mammals of the Big Bend region
by Borell and Bryant (1942) and with the mammals of Culberson
County by Davis and Robertson (1944) offers good evidence that the
affinities of the mammals of most of Trans-Pecos Texas lie with the
fauna of northern Chihuahua. Similar evidence is available for the
avifauna in the work of Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) in Brewster
County, and for the herpetofauna in the work of Schmidt and Smith
(1944) in the Big Bend region.

The details of ecological distribution in Trans-Pecos Texas and
the limits of such biotic districts as may exist there within the limits
of the Chihuahuan province need much further work. Some compari¬
sons are possible, however, between the Sierra Vieja region and the
Chisos Mountain region of the Big Bend, and between our region and
the Davis Mountain region.

One major ecological difference between the Sierra Vieja and
the Davis and Chisos Mountain regions is in elevation. The Sierra Vie j as
are much lower than these other ranges. The highest point is Vieja
Peak, with an elevation of 6467 feet, and most of the mountain mass
lies below 6000 feet. The Davis Mountains reach an elevation of 8382
feet (Mount Livermore), and the Chisos Mountains have a maximum
elevation of 7835 feet (Emory Peak). Both of these latter ranges have
extensive areas above 6000 feet. The Davis Mountains receive more
rainfall and are cooler than the Sierra Viejas (see York, unpublished).
No weather data are available for the Chisos Mountains, but they too
probably receive more precipitation and average somewhat lower in
temperature than the Sierra Viejas due to their greater elevation.

39

Several important ecological associations, lacking from the Sierra
Viejas, occur in the Davis and Chisos Mountains because of their
greater elevation and more favorable climatic conditions. The oak-
juniper, pinyon- juniper, and yellow-pine- juniper associations have been
described from the Davis Mountains by Blair (1940). Comparable asso¬
ciations were found in the Chisos Mountains by Borell and Bryant
(1942). The absence of these associations from the Sierra Viejas prob¬
ably accounts for the absence of several species of vertebrates from
the Roughland belt of the Sierra Vieja district.

The Plains belt of the Sierra Vieja district seems to differ little
from the comparable belt of the Chisos Mountain area. In both of
these areas the Plains belt has a lower elevation than the comparable
belt cf the Davis Mountain region, and the climate of this belt in these
regions is apparently dryer and less favorable for plant growth than
in the Davis Mountain region. The vegetation of the Plains belt in these
areas is, consequently, more desertic than in the Davis Mountain area.
Grama grasses (Bouteloua, various species) are more important ele¬
ments in the Plains belt vegetation of the Davis Mountain region than
in these others, where desert scrub and tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica)
are predominant elements.

The part of Trans-Pecos Texas studied by us, the Sierra Vieja
Range and the adjacent plains, is, as already indicated, best treated as
two biotic districts of the Chihuahuan biotic province. The compara¬
tively low, hot, dry lowlands and lew hills of the old Rio Grande Basin
comprise the Rio Grande Basin district. The Sierra Vieja, at least east
of the “rim”, and the Valentine Plain comprise the Sierra Vieja dis¬
trict. This separation is made principally on the basis of the presence
of certain ecological associations and of certain vertebrate species in
the Rio Grande Basin but not in the Sierra Vieja district as here
limited. The salt cedar-mesquite association of the Rio Grande flood-
plain and the ocotillo-creosote bush association of the adjacent gravelly
uplands are characteristic of the Rio Grande Basin district. The most
common small mammal, a pocket-mouse (Perognathus penicillatus), of
the Rio Grande Basin district was apparently absent from the Sierra
Vieja district. Eight (24.2%) of 33 species of birds recorded by Phillips
and Thornton (In Press) from the Rio Grande Basin district were
not found in the Sierra Vieja district. The bird list for the former
district is quite incomplete, and future work will probably reveal addi¬
tional differences in the avifauna of the two districts. Notably common
birds of the Rio Grande Basin district that were absent from the Sierra
Vieja district include the Gambel’s quail (Lophortyx gambeli) and the
long-tailed chat (Icteria virens). Five (33.3%) of 15 species of amphib¬
ians and reptiles recorded by Jameson and Flury (In Press) from
the Rio Grande Basin district, appeared to be absent from the Sierra
Vieja district. Four of these, including Bufo cognatus, Bufo compactilis,
Uta stansburiana and Cnemidophorus tessellatus, were common in the
former district, but intensive field work failed to reveal them in the
latter district. The list of amphibians and reptiles is obviously incom¬
plete for the Rio Grande Basin district, and further work will probably
reveal additional differences in the herpetofauna of the two districts.
The differences in ecological associations and in the vertebrate fauna

90

are of such magnitude that it is logical and reasonable to treat the Rio
Grande Basin area and the Sierra Vieja — Valentine Plain area as sep¬
arate biotic districts.

Comparison of the vertebrate fauna of our region with that of
other parts of the Chihuahuan province in Trans •Pecos Texas is limited
by the paucity of published work on other, nearby areas. The mammal¬
ian fauna of the Siera Vieja district may be compared with that of
the Davis Mountain biotic district as reported by Blair (1940). Six
(13.3%) of 45 species of mammals recorded from, the Sierra Vieja
districts have not been recorded from the Davis Mountain district.
Four of these are bats. The antelope squirrel (Citellus interpres) appears
to be absent from the Davis Mountain district, but it has been recorded
from the base of the Guadalupe Mountains to the north of the Sierra
Vieja by Davis (1940). The javelina (Tayassu angulatum) probably does
not range north of the Sierra Vie j as in this part of Texas. Fifteen
(27.3%) of the 55 species recorded by Blair from the Davis Mountain
district have not been taken in the Sierra Vieja district. Some of these,
such as Citellus mexicanus and Reithrodontomys fulvescens, will prob¬
ably be found to occur in the Sierra Vieja district. Others, such as
Dipodomys ordii, Perognathus hisp-idus, Peromyscus tooyiii, Neotoma
mexicana and others, are probably absent.

Comparison of the vetebrate fauna of our region with that of the
Chisos Mountain region is difficult, because previous workers in that
area have made little or no biogeographic distinction between the low¬
lands of the Rio Grande and the mountain masses and plains. It is
necessary, therefore, to lump the faunas of the two biotic districts in
our region for comparison with the Big Bend fauna. In actuality, the
“Lower Sonoran Life Zone” of Borell and Bryant (1942) in the Big
Bend region probably corresponds in part to the Rio Grande Basin
district of our region. Only two (4.3%) of the 46 species of mammals
recorded from our region were not listed also by Borell and Bryant
(1942) from the Big Bend. Fifteen (26.1%) of 56 species listed from
the Big Bend were not recorded from our region. Two of the Big
Bend species have been extirpated in the southern Trans-Pecos, and
they may well have occurred over a wide area. One species, Odocoileus
virgmianus, almost certainly occurred in our region, but we obtained no
positive records. Several of the remaining 12 species will probably be
found in future work in the Sierra Vieja region. It seems unlikely
that differences in elevation make for any great differences in the
mammalian faunas of the two regions, for, with the possible exception
of Peromyscus boylii, the species missing from the Sierra Vieja list are
not high-elevation species.

Fifty -five (46.6%) of the 118 species of breeding birds listed from
Brewster County by Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) were not recorded
from the Sierra Vieja region by Phillips and Thornton (In Press).
All but three of the species of breeding birds recorded from our region
are listed for Brewster County. This considerable difference in the
avifauna is probably attributable in part to differences in elevation in
the two regions and in part to the limited amount of field work in the
Sierra Vieja region.

91

Thirteen (24.5%) of the 53 species of amphibians and reptiles
reported by Jameston and Flury (In Press) from our region have
not been taken by previous workers in the Chisos Mountain area.
Seventeen (30.4%) of 56 species listed by pervious workers from the
Chisos Mountain area have not been taken in the Sierra Vieja area.
Some of this apparent difference in the herpetofauna of the two regions
may be due in part to differences in field techniques and times of field
work. There has been enough work in both regions, however, to sug¬
gest that a considerable part of the difference is due to actual differ¬
ences in the faunas of the two areas.

On the basis of present information, there is, therefore, a consid¬
erable difference between the Big Bend region and the region of the
Sierra Viejas in the herpetofauna, in the avifauna and in the mammal¬
ian fauna. Whether or not the Chisos Mountain area and the Sierra
Vieja area should be regarded as separate biotic districts can only be
determined by future work in these areas.

SUMMARY

Ecological distribution of the mammals was studied in the Sierra
Vieja region of Trans-Pecos Texas from June 3 to July 9, 1948 and on
short trips in the summer of 1947 and in the spring of 1948.

Forty-six species of mammals were recorded. Twelve (26.7%) of
these species are widely distributed in North America. Fourteen (31.1%)
are widely distributed in the biotic provinces of western North Amer¬
ica. Twelve (26.7%) have their centers of distribution in several biotic
provinces of Mexico and range into our region from the south. Five
(11.1%) are largely restricted to the Chihuahuan biotic province. Two
(4.4%) have their centers of distribution in the Great Plains.

The region studied is believed to include parts of two biotic dis¬
tricts. The Rio Grande Basin district includes the old Rio Grande Basin
and differs from the Sierra Vieja district in ecological associations and
in its vertebrate fauna. The Sierra Vieja district includes the Sierra
Vieja mountain mass, at least east of the summit, and the adjacent Val¬
entine plain.

Two life belts are recognized in the Sierra Vieja district. Thirteen
species of mammals occur in one or more of the seven ecological asso¬
ciations of the Plains belt but not in the Roughland belt. Twenty-three
species occur in one or more of the six associations of the Roughland
belt, but they do not extend out into the Plains belt beyond the tran¬
sitional catclaw-cedar association. Nine species occur in both life belts.
One species is restricted in our area to the Rio Grande Basin district.

Differences in climate, in elevation, in ecological associations and
in the vertebrate fauna distinguish the Sierra Vieja district from the
Davis Mountain district to the east. Somewhat similar differences exist
between the Sierra Vieja district and the area of the Chisos mountains
to the southeast.

LITERATURE CITED

Bailey, Vernon — 1905 — Biological survey of Texas. North Amer. Fauna

25: 1-22, 16 pis., 24 text figs.

92

Blair, W. Frank — 1940 — A contribution to the ecology and faunal re¬
lationships of the mammals of the Davis Mountain region, south¬
western Texas. Misc. Publ. Univ. Mich. Mus. Zool. 46: 1-39, 3 pis.,
1 map.

In press — Shade of pelage color in two populations of kangaroo rats
and remarks on the status of Dipodomys merriami ambiguus Mer-
riam. Jour. Mammology 30.

Borell, Adrey E. and Monroe B. Bryant — 1942 — Mammals of the Big
Bend area of Texas. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 48 (1): 62 pp., 5 pis.,
1 text fig.

Davis, William B. — 1940 — Mammals of the Guadalupe Mountains of
western Texas. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. Louisiana State Univ. 7:
69-84, 1 text fig.

Davis, W. B. and J. L. Robertson, Jr. — 1944 — The mammals of Culberson
County, Texas. Jour. Mammology 25: 254-273, 1 pi., 2 text figs.

Dice, Lee R. — 1943 — The biotic provinces of North America. Univ. Mich.
Press. Ann Arbor: 78 pp., 1 map.

Jameson, D. L. and A. G. Flury — The reptiles and amphibians of the
Sierra Vieja range in southwestern Texas. In press.

Tex. J. Sci. 1(2).

Miller, G. S. and G. M. Allen — 1928 — The American bats of the genera
Myctis and Pizonyx. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 144: i-viii, 1-218, 1 pi.,
1 text fig., 13 maps.

Osgood, W. H. — 1909 — Revision of the mice of the American genus
Peromyscus. North Amer. Fauna 28: 1-285, 8 pis., 12 text figs.

Phillips, H. W. and W. A. Thornton — The summer resident birds of the
Sierra Vieja range in southwestern Texas. In press. Tex. J. Sci. 1(3).

Schmidt, K. P. and T. F. Smith — 1944— Amphibians and reptiles of the
Big Bend region of Texas. Zool. Ser. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 29: 75-96.

Simpson, George Gaylord — 1945 — The principles of classification and
a classification of mammals. Bull. American Nat. Hist. 85: i-xvi,
1-350.

Van Tyne, J. and G. M. Sutton — 1937— The birds of Brewster County,
Texas, Misc. Publ. Univ. Mich. Mus. Zool. 37: 1-119, 6 pis., 1 map.

York, C. L. — The physical and vegetational basis for animal distribu¬
tion in the Sierra Vieja range of southwestern Texas. (Unpublished.)

PENICILLIN AND STREPTOMYCIN SENSITIVITY
OF SOME PROTOZOA

John B. Loefer

Foundation of Applied Research
San Antonio, Texas

Antibiotics have provided a useful tool for obtaining bacteria-free
cultures of protozoa. A number of investigators have employed them
to obtain pure cultures of such species as Trichomonas foetus', T. vagi¬
nalis, Colpidium campylum and Endamoeba. There is, however, little
information regarding the effect of antibiotics on metabolism of pro¬
tozoa. It is generally known that they inhibit bacteria in fairly low
concentrations. It is known that yeasts and spermatazoa have high

93

tolerance for penicillin. Our knowledge of their action on protozoa
however, is very meager. It is not known what concentrations inhibit
growth, motility, or interfere with other manifestations of metabolism.
It is not known whether certain levels depress division rate, nor do
we know how different species are affected by various concentrations
of different antibiotics.

Experiments were set up to determine the effects of different
concentrations of penicillin and streptomycin on motility and viability

of Tetrahymena geleii, Euglena proxima, Chlamydomonas pseudococcum
and Chlorella paramecii.

EXPERIMENTS WITH PENICILLIN

Cultures contained penicillin in concentrations ranging between
5,000 and 133,300 units/ml of penicillin for each of these species. Inocu¬
lations were made from actively dividing stocks and the cultures were
incubated under constant light for periods varying from twenty-four
hours to seventeen days. Data on motility and viability was recorded
at successive intervals during the culture period. When motility was
not evident, a viability test was made. The following table summarizes
data obtained:

TABLE I. EFFECTS OF PENICILLIN ON MOTILITY AND VIABILITY

Species Motility Range Viability Limit

Tetrahymena geleii 10,000, below 25,000 10,000, below 25,000

Euglena proxima 75,000, below 100,000 133,300 or above (4 days)

Chlamydomonas pseudococcum — 75,000, below 100,000 (7 da.)

- — below 25,000 (17 days)

Chlorella paramecii — below 25,000 (7 days)

The results indicate that the species tested vary greatly in their
response to different concentrations of penicillin. Euglena proxima
remains motile in concentrations as high as 25,000 units/ml and is
viable after exposure to 133,000 for four days. The ciliate Tetrahymena
was non-motile after exposure to 25,000 units. The same was true for
Chlorella. Chlamydcmonas, however, was viable after seven days ex¬
posure to 75,000 units.

EFFECT OF STREPTOMYCIN

Streptomycin was similarly tested on T. geleii, E. proxima and
Chlorogcnium tetragamum. The ciliate multiplied in concentrations up
to 20 mgm/ml. The growth was somewhat retarded as compared with
controls. Acclimatizing the stock culture by allowing it to grow for
several days with 10 mgm/ml of streptomycin appeared to have no
effect on the upper limit of motility or viability. Chlorogonium, after
several days exposure to a concentration of 20 mgm/ml, is not viable.
Euglena proxima behaves quite differently from the other species tested
in that it was viable after twelve days exposure to a concentration of
100 mgm/ml, although it was not motile in the 50 mgm/ml concentra¬
tion. Another striking fact observed in connection with this species is
that chlorophyll formation was inhibited in cultures containing as little
as 5 mgm/ml of streptomycin. In concentrations ranging from 5 to 15

94

mgm/ml, growth was very good and no significant retardation was
noted as compared with controls.

Experiments are being made to determine the effect of other anti¬
biotics on both free-living and parasitic protozoa.

CANCER OF THE HUMAN GENITAL ORGANS FROM THE
STANDPOINT OF ABNORMAL STEROID METABOLISM

Max N. Huffman
Department of Biochemistry
Southwestern Medical College

There no longer remains doubt that the steroid sex hormones are
concerned in the etiology of cancer of the reproductive organs. Just
how they fit into the etiological picture is not known; and it is not the
purpose here to discuss whether steroid hormones should be regarded
as remote causative factors or as more nearly proximate causative
factors, or whether they act interdependently with other tumorigenic
agents.

In general, there are two important views concerning the induction
of cancer by steroid hormones. One theory holds that an over-supply
of hormone is responsible; the other theory maintains that the causa¬
tive agent is an abnormal steroid metabolite more tumorigenic in nature
than the known hormone. The author has for several years been asso¬
ciated with the latter view, and has, since 1941, been engaged in the
synthesis of steroid compounds which might logically be regarded as
metabolites.

Our present knowledge of the metabolism of the steroid hormones
is far from complete. However, it is clearly recognized that in the
estrogen series the hormones estrone and alpha-estradiol exist in bio¬
chemically reversible equilibrium; furthermore, one of these two estro¬
gens (probably estrone) is catabolized irreversibly to estriol in the
human organism. In the transformation of estrone to estriol there exists
the possibility of four stereoisomers of the 16, 17-glycol possessing the
unchanged estratriene nucleus. Three of the possible four isomers have
now been prepared in pure form. The author and his associates have
adopted a method of synthesis of 16, 17-dihydroxysteroids which leads
from the 17-ketosteroid through the 16, 17-diketone and thence through
the 16, 17-ketol. Through this synthetic route the same series of Ring D
substituted steroids has now been prepared with the androgen nucleus.
A question arises whether 16, 1 7-diketosteroids and 16, 17-ketolic steroids
are not themselves to be regarded as abnormal metabolites.

In recent years degradative studies on the steroid hormones have
established the astonishing fact that opening of steroid Ring D may
lead to compounds of powerful biological activity. We have therefore
submitted a 16, 17-diketosteroid to synthetic operations which rupture
the Cie-CiT bond with production of an aldehyde group and a car¬
boxylic acid group. Such a compound has then been reduced to the
hydroxy acid which in turn spontaneously lactonizes to give the alpha-
lactone. This series of reactions has been performed upon such hormones
as estrone, androsterone, dehydroisoandrosterone, etc.

95

The concept of biochemical antagonism has altered the approach
to the study of tumorigenesis from the standpoint of abnormal steroid
metabolism. For instance, administration of estrogen often brings about
strikingly beneficial results in clinical cancer of the prostate. While
this phenomenon is generally regarded as being due to the anti-andro¬
genic action of estrogenic substance in which the physiological effect
of male sex hormone is opposed by the physiological effect of female
sex hormone, it is possible to interpret this antagonism in a somewhat
different light. Let us suppose that the pertinent causative factor in
cancer of the prostate is an abnormal androgen metabolite: then estro¬
genic substance may be regarded, because of structural similarity, as
competing against this abnormal androgen metabolite in a specific bio¬
chemical reaction. Perhaps, however, estrodiol or stilbestrol are not
very efficient competitors in this particular biochemical reaction. Per¬
haps a much better competitor or biochemical antagonist can be found.
Again, let us suppose that the endocrine factor in cancer of the breast
is an abnormal metabolite of an est.ronegic hormone: then testosterone,
because of structural similarity, competes against this metabolite in a
certain biochemical reaction. Perhaps, however, testosterone is not a
completely biochemical antagonist; perhaps a more efficient inhibitor
can be discovered or invented.

In the concept of induction of cancer by an abnormal steroid
metabolite it is not necessary to assume that the metabolite has hormonal
activity to any considerable degree. Neither is it necessary to assume
that the most effective biochemical antagonist has hormonal activity.
That hormonal activity and tumorigenic activity parallel each other is,
in our opinion, unlikely. Although it is clearly recognized that the
most effective competitive inhibitor need not be a member of the
opposite sex hormone series, our thinking has largely been in this
direction because of the unique structural specificity of the steroid
hormones.

Abstract's

FIBER PLANTS OF THE BIG BEND AREA OF TEXAS. Omer E.
Sperry, Department of Range and Forestry, A. & M. College of Texas.
(Abstract) — This paper deals with the taxonomic, economic and
into the following three families: Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae and
Bromeliceae. Five genera are included. These are: Yucca, Nolina,
Dasylirion, Agave and Hechtia. The leaves of all of these plants pro¬
duce more or less fiber, and most of them have been exploited by some
generation of peoples. A number of the species here discussd also
produce considerable fiber in the stems. Indian basketry and cordage
uses, as uncovered by investigators, bear evidence that most of the
Big Bend fiber plants were utilized. Some of the species, as shown by
recent investigations, produce up to forty-five percent of the dry weight
of the leaf in fiber.

Some of our fiber plants produce forage or emergency livestock
rations, others contribute to dwelling construction, and all play an

96

important role in soil conservation. In heavily grazed areas it is often
noted that the only normal plants of the more palatable grasses and
forbs are growing in the protection of the larger plants that were not
grazed. The source of seed of these palatable species is exceedingly
important in their maintenance on the range. Two species included are
toxic to livestock under certain conditions.

Since more than seven hundred thousand acres of the Big Bend
Area are in the Big Bend National Park, the importance of many of
these plants in adding color and interest to the Park Area cannot be
overlooked. Many square miles of desert scrub surround the mountains
included in the Park proper. The fiber plants, together with the cacti
and other desert shrubs, do much to enliven the landscape for the
tourist who must pass through these areas to reach the more scenic
mountain and river sites.

CHANGES IN NATURAL VEGETATION IN PASTURES ON
ABANDONED FARM LANDS IN BRAZOS COUNTY, TEXAS. Thad B.
Trew, Department of Range and Forestry, A. & M. College of Texas.
(Abstract) — This study was undertaken at the beginning of the
growing season of 1947 to determine the changes in vegetation in pas¬
tures of formerly cultivated lands at various stages of abandonment.
Fifteen areas in the vicinity of College Station, used as pastures after
being abandoned as farm land, were selected for this study. These
areas had been abandoned from growing crops from one to twenty-
seven years. All pastures were grazed at various intensities, and al¬
though three were terraced, none were fertilized. The vegetational
analyses of the pastures were made using density and composition as
the primary means of securing data.

A study of this nature is of considerable economic importance to
farmers throughout East Texas, since thousands of acres of formerly
cultivated land have been abandoned due to low fertility and economic
situations. The average ranchman in the area is financially unable
to develop improved pastures from worn out farm lands. The avail¬
ability of seed, fertilizer and the high cost of labor are major reasons
for allowing the native and adapted vegetation to take over the areas
in the course of natural plant succession.

When the area is abandoned from cultivation, natural plant suc¬
cession begins, and unless continually held back by grazing, there is
a tendency for the areas to become a more or less stabilized grassland.
If ample time is given for both plant and soil development, a climax
vegetation may be reached. The successional units shown in these
pastures are:

1. Annual weed stage

2. Annual grass and weed stage

3. Annual — perennial stage

4. Perennial — annual stage

5. Perennial stage

Grazing, and in most instances overgrazing, is the most important
factor in keeping the composition of the pasture areas in a low level of
successional development. Soil, proximity to natural seed sources, and

97

former cultural practices are factors influencing development; but
grazing plays such an important and modifying role that these become
of secondary consideration. It is natural that perennial grasses should
dominate the area as they are more adapted to compete for water and
soil nutrients than the shallow rooted annuals.

A COMPACT SENSITOMETER WITH EXPOSURE RANGE OF
1 TO 10,000. Anthony D. Grover. (Abstract) — A sensitometer is described
which produces 40 exposure areas 11.2 mm. in diameter over a range of
intensities from 1 to 10,000 by combining the principle of an absorbing
medium to that of fixed aperatures as employed in the obsolete tube
sensitometer. The instrument is portable, uses 5 x 7 in. cut sheet film or
plates and can be used with any light source including sun light. All the
forty exposures are produced simultaneously and any exposure interval
may be employed from a fraction of a second to many hours.

COLONEL JARED ELLISON GROCE, THE FATHER OF TEXAS
AGRICULTURE. Col. M. L. Crimmins, San Antonio, Texas, (Abstract) —
The foundation for the backbone of Texas prosperity, as well as
founding the power that was doomed to sway the destiny of Texas is
COTTON — the leading cash crop of our State. Texas has her cattle,
corn, timber, sulphur, gas and oil, but cotton is still KING. The man
responsible for the introduction of cotton was Colonel Jared Ellison
Groce, who came to Texas early in 1822 with a large caravan of 116
slaves and fifty wagons, with horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and hogs
to develop East Texas, He settled on the east bank of the Brazos
four miles below what is now Hempstead, and eventually had, it is
said, all the “walking land” in five counties adjoining — over 67,000
acres. Besides growing the first cotton in 1822, he established the first
gin and in 1826 shipped 100 bales to New Orleans. He took an active
part in suppressing the cannibalistic Karankawas in 1824, fed and
foraged Sam Houston’s Army for two weeks so as to fit them for their
victory ten days later at San Jacinto. The Declaration of Texas Inde¬
pendence was written at his home, “Groce Retreat.” His son, Leonard
W. Groce, of “Liendo” carried on the program which his illustrious
father instigated and in addition to farm crops, he grew over 500
varieties of plants and shrubs and many useful trees. He won the
silver cup for the first five bales of cotton in 1842, and the gold cup
for the first twenty given by a committee of merchants in Houston.

FORAGE COMPETITION BETWEEN THE PRONGHORNED
ANTELOPE AND DOMESTIC SHEEP IN TRANS-PECOS TEXAS.

Helmut K. Buechner, Texas Cooperative Wildlife Unit, College Station,
Texas, (Abstract)— The purpose of this paper is to point out the probable
cause for the incompatibility between the pronghorned antelope and
domestic sheep. While competition between these two animals has
been recognized for the past decade or so, little has been done to deter¬
mine the cause and effect relationships involved. On the basis of 60
clip quadrats on three ranches representing different types of livestock
grazing, it is shown that sheep are responsible for eliminating forbs and
grasses when the range is overstocked. Since forbs constitute the bulk

98

of the antelope diet, populations of antelope are limited by the amount
of forb forage remaining on the range under utilization by sheep.

ON THE MECHANICS OF THE AFRICAN SPITTING COBRAS,
NAJA NIGRICOLLIS AND HEMACIIATUS HAEMACHATUS. C. W.

Horton, The University of Texas. (Abstract) — In South Africa there
are two genera of the cobras which enjoy a modification of their fang
structure that enables them to eject their poison into the eyes of other
animals. According to Ditmars, the snakes can eject their poison a maxi¬
mum distance of 12 feet. A simple calculation based on this figure
shows that the venom must have a velocity of 600 cm/sec when it leaves
the fangs. An application of Bernoulli’s theorem shows that the pres¬
sure in the poison glands necessary to produce this velocity is 180,000
dynes/cm2. A correction for the viscous losses in the fang increases
this figure to 270,000 dynes/cm2.

If it is assumed that the poison sack has a circular cross section
and that the walls of the masseter muscle have a thickness of one-tenth
the radius of the gland’s cross section, it is easy to show that the
tension that must be developed in the masseter muscles is 1,350,000
dynes/ cm2.

PRECIPITATION OF COPPER HYDROXIDE IN PRESENCE OF
SULFOSALICYLIC ACID. Stanley E. Turner and Robbin C. Anderson.
(Abstract) — An investigation is being made of the effect of com¬
plex ion formation with sulfosalicylic acid upon the precipitation of
certain ions such as those of copper, calcium, magnesium and iron.
In the present series of experiments, precipitation of copper hydroxide
is being studied.

A technique based on pH variations is used to determine conditions
for first formation of precipitate. The presence of sulfosalicylic acid
affects the ease and extent of precipitation. Color changes show that
complex ions are formed; so that the sulfosalicylic acid reacts to tie
up cupric ions in complexes and thus to interfere with reaction with
hydroxide.

Spectrophotometric studies show that two different complexes are
formed — possibly involving different combining ratios of sulfosalicylate
ions to cupric ions or a complex of copper and hydroxide. Studies of
the nature of these complexes are being made.

The pH determinations and spectrophotometric measurements of
complex concentrations are being combined in precipitation experi¬
ments to obtain quantitative data on extent and mechanism of the
influence of the complexes on copper hydroxide formation.

THE CONSERVATION OF MAN AND HIS RESOURCES. John G.

Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston. (Abstract) —
The Texas Academy of Science is establishing a Conservation Council
of twelve members and a president. The object of the Council is to
publish studies by its members and their cocouncillors dealing with
the following range of subjects. 1. The physical and mental health of
the people of Texas. 2. Genetic composition, eugenic and dysgenic prac¬
tices. 3. Social and economic factors affecting living standards. 4. Ground
water, rivers, lakes and water power resources. 5. Soil erosion and

99

composition in relation to agriculture. 6. Forest and grassland resources.
7. Petroleum and gas resources, 8. Minerals in general and source ma¬
terials for atomic energy. 9. Marine resources. 10. Wild life, refuges.
11. State parks, monuments and recreational centers. 12. Collections
from archeological and paleontological sites.

The presidential address deals particularly with the first six of
these topics.

SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIES. Chauncey D. Leake, Vice-President,
University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. (Abstract) — Although
scientific acedemies take their origin from the Athenian grove where
Plato taught, modern scientific societies began with the chartering in
London in 1662 of the Royal Society for the Improving of Natural
Knowledge. Secretary Henry Oldenburgh’s correspondence with inter¬
ested scientists throughout the world became so great that the letters
began to be published in journal form. This resulted in the famous
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Since 1665
these have been largely responsible for maintaining the prestige of
the organization. Similar societies were later established in Paris and
in other. European countries. The American Philosophical Society was
organized in Philadelphia in 1743, for the promotion of useful knowl¬
edge, and its Transactions have appeared since 1769. Specialized scientific
societies began to be established toward the latter part of the 18th
century. The British Association for the Advancement of Science was
organized in 1822, and the American Association for the Advancement
of Science was founded in 1848. The Western Academy of Natural
Sciences started by Daniel Drake in Cincinnati in 1833 was the first
such organization west of Philadelphia. The Texas Academy of Science
was established in 1880, but with no publications, stopped functioning
in 1887. A second Texas Academy of Science was organized in 1892,
and was active until 1912, having published twelve volumes of Trans¬
actions. The present Texas State Academy of Science was organized in
1929. Its permanence may depend on the regular publication of its
Transactions.

The function of an Academy of Science is to stimulate scientific
progress generally through opportunities for exchange of scientific
information and opinion among representatives of all the various
sciences. A regional Academy of Science has an added obligation in
promoting the vigorous scientific study of problems arising from or
peculiar to the region. Texas is still an intellectual frontier. Its prob¬
lems are manifold, not only in the devolpment and conservation of its
enormous natural resources, but also in the promotion of the full
scientific capacities of its remarkably varied and enthusiastic people.

THE ELEMENTARY DYNAMICS OF TERRESTRIAL AND LUNAR
IMPACTS. John D. Boon. (Abstract) — The impact of a large, swiftly
moving meteorite is a problem of dynamics and should be considered
from this viewpoint. In this study certain physical laws, principles,
and processes are applicable. About twenty of these factors are listed.
From these factors the following conclusions seem to be logical:

(1) Even the most rigid solid may behave as a liquid if it is sub-

jected to the pressure created by the impact of a meteorite. (2) When
an impact takes place the kinetic energy is almost instantly changed
into other forms. (3) The energy absorbers that work the more rapidly
will get the greater portion of this energy. (4) Heat is a slow energy
absorber, hence but little impact energy is transformed into this form.
(5) The only place where high temperatures are produced is at the
interfacial contacts. (6) Terrestrial meteorite craters should be quite
different in form from lunar meteorite craters, because the latter body
is, in general, more elastic than the former.

THE THEORY OF DUAL ROTATION. George L. Edwards, Browns¬
ville, Texas. (Abstract) — The theory of dual rotation is offered as a
logical explanation of geological sequences, including the alternate sub¬
mergence and emergence of the continent and the necessity for such a
process. The slow shift of the lithosphere to different climatic zones
during each geologic cycle brings about the so-called Ice Age in one
phase of rotation and submerges the continent in the equatorial bulge
in the other. This movement also accounts for tropical and subtropical
flora fossils as well as coal deposits within the Arctic Circle.

Comment will be made on the International Latitude Service and
its reports covering forty years of observation at five observatories
located several thousand miles apart, together with changing coast
lines and other circumstances which led to locating the center of this
secondary movement at the Magnetic North Pole.

The location of the Magnetic North Pole, its reported ability to
move about, the effect of slow rotation about that center, earth mag¬
netism, solar radiation, climatic zones permanently fixed by the solar
system, earth’s climate past and present, and maximum variation in
latitude brought about by this secondary movement will also be dis¬
cussed.

Commenting on rotation of the earth about its solar axis, I will
briefly refer to centripetal energy generated by rotation which has
created the equatorial bulge and formed the earth into an oblate
ellipsoid. The effect caused by this bulge, which increases the distance
from center of the earth to sea level approximately 765 feet for each
degree as we approach the equator. Ability of the hydrosphere to
adjust its particles so as to form the contour of the bulge in response
to increasing centrifugal force as it slowly moves toward the equator.
Inability of the land to form the contour of the bulge, resulting in ex¬
treme tensional stress, faulting with accompanying earthquakes, rifts,
upthrusts, geosyclines and submergence. In the other phase of this sec¬
ondary rotation, the lithosphere moves away from the equator, land
emerges, centrifugal force lessens, tensional stress gives way to com¬
pressive stress which results in faulting, folding and major mountain
building.

In the proper place, I will briefly discuss erosion while land is
emergent and rejuvenation by sediment while submerged diastrophism
brought about by this secondary movement and the Orogenic Cycle
which starts with a geosyncline formed during some previous phase
of tensional stress and ends with a major uplift during a later phase
of compressive stress.

101

A METHOD FOR VERIFYING THE LAWS OF DEFINITE PRO¬
PORTIONS AND OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS. B. E. Schulze,

Corpus Christi Junior College, Corpus Christi, Texas. (Abstract) — A
method of verifying the laws of definite proportions and of multiple
proportions is described. The method is not new but is a modification
of a method found in several manuals currently used in freshman
chemistry classes.

Potassium chlorate and potassium perchlorate each of C. P. grade
are decomposed in the presence of a catalyst. A specially prepared
stopper is used to prevent the loss of any material except the oxygen.
The weight of oxygen combined with one gram of potassium chloride
in each compound is determined. The ratio of the weights of oxygen
obtained agrees within one percent or less with the theoretical value.

Other advantages of the method: (1) Inexpensive triple beam
balances are used. (2) The entire experiment can be performed in one
three hour laboratory period.

MORPHOLOGICAL AND UTILIZATION STUDIES ON PRAIRIE
THREE AWN GRASS IN BRAZOS COUNTY, TEXAS. Alfred H.
Walker, A. & M. College. — (Abstract)— One of the most widespread
and abundant annual grasses of the central and eastern. United States is
prairie three awn grass, Aristida cligantha Michx. The local preponder¬
ance of this grass denotes range misuse in this area since the bluestems
and post oaks are the climax vegetation. Due to the abundance of this
species the growth habits, forage value, effect of grazing and palatabil-
ity are of major economic importance. A detailed study concerning
these essential points was conducted from November, 1946, to Septem¬
ber, 1947. The following conclusions are indicated:

1. Prairie tree awn grass exhibits most of the characteristics com¬
mon to the other grasses of this genus. Significant differences which
differentiate it from other species of Aristida are the long divergent
unequal awns, annual root system, lanate base, and glabrous sheath.

2. The outstanding characteristics for identifying prairie three awn
grass in the various growth stages follow:

a. Winter stage — Short pedicels and long glumes.

b. Seedling stage — Attached seed parts and geniculate base.

c. Boot stage — Lanate base, glabrous sheath, and pilose blade.

d. Early flower stage— Flattened nodes, long irxternodes, #nd
lanate base.

e. Mature stage — Long divergent unequal awns and lanate base.

3. Roadsides, fields retired from cultivation, and overgrazed ranges
are the natural habitat for prairie three awn grass. Raising soil fertil¬
ity in such areas results in increased size and forage production of
plants and replacement of this species by more desirable types of
vegetation.

4. Prairie three awn grass normally germinates in February, makes
abundant growth in early spring and summer, and produces seed in
August and September.

102

5. Aristida intermedia Scribn, and Ball produces less forage and
commonly grows on less fertile soils than prairie three awn grass.
Characteristics which differentiate these species are the short spikelets
and awns (less than 1 inch long) and smooth base on A. intermedia.

6. Heavy fall grazing of prairie three awn ranges results in lowered
forage production the following season.

7. Burning of prairie three awn ranges in the fall is a detrimental
practice. Forage production is decreased about 75 per cent and range
deterioration occurs the next season.

8. Clipping studies at various growth stages reveal that forage
production is increased by clipping and the forage remains more pala¬
table. Mortality of plants increased with the number of clippings, but
season-long observations indicate about twice as much forage produc¬
tion on clipped plots as on ungrazed plots.

9. The maximum forage growth occurred on plants first clipped in
the late boot stage. Plants clipped at 1 inch produced six times the
height forage growth when compared to ungrazed plots and clipping at
2 inches produced over four times as much forage by the same com¬
parison. Prairie three awn has become so coarse and wiry by this stage
if previously ungrazed that it is largely unpalatable to livestock. There¬
fore, grazing must be initiated earlier in the season to secure maximum
utilization.

10. Prairie three awn grass makes up a large portion of the forage
utilized by livestock in this locality. This grass is low in palatabiiity
and usually is the last grass grazed in a pasture of mixed grasses. There
is a reciprocal relationship between range condition class and the degree
of utilization of prairie three awn.

11. Rotation heavy grazing of pastures and range land supporting
moderate to heavy stands of prairie three awn grass is recommended.
Cattle should be grazed on these areas from mid-April to mid-August
permitting plant residue and seed formation to contribtue toward range
improvement. Further research into the economics of fertilizing and
reseeding poor-condition ranges for more rapid range improvement is
suggested.

PAIN AND THE ASPHYXIA OF NERVE— E. P Porter and J. L.
Coleman, Department of Physiology, University of Texas, School of
Medicine. (Abstract)— When the blood supply to a tissue is interfered
with pain often results. This is particularly true in the limbs following
obstruction of the blood vessels by a clot or by arterio sclerosis, and in
the heart when the agonizing pain of angina pectoris occurs. It is still a
question as to just what causes the pain. It has been suggested that
the products of metabolism stimulate the pain nerves but there is also
the possibility that the nerve itself is affected by the asphyxia. Porter
and Wharton (Journal of Neuro-Physiology, in press) found that a
mammalian motor nerve becomes more irritable when its blood supply
is cut off. This present report has to do with a sensory nerve. We have
located a place in the hind leg of the cat where it is possible to cut off

103

the blood supply from a pain nerve and study the effect. The experi¬
ment is done on the spinal (headless) cat, which can suffer no conscious
pain but still withdraws the foot to a painful stimulus just as the con¬
scious animal would do. In this preparation a weak shock through the
pain nerve will cause a slight movement of the hind leg. If now the
blood supply to the nerve which is receiving the shock is cut off, the
movement of the leg becomes much more vigorous. Returning the blood
to the nerve brings back contractions to their original height. This
indicates that a pain nerve, like the motor nerves, become more irritable
when it lacks its normal blood supply. This increased irritability may
play a part in producing pain in the human patient when the blood
flow is obstructed.

SOME BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF SEX DETERMINATION IN
BONELLIA VIRIDIS — Wiktor W. Nowinski, Tissue Culture Laboratory,
University of Texas Medical Branch. (Abstract) — Bonellia viridis is a
marine worm which belongs to the class of Echiurida. The female pos¬
sesses a trunk of the shape and size of a walnut, and a contractile
proboscis which, when stretched, can be as long as 1 yard. The male is
about 1/16 inch long, has an aspect of a nematode, and lives as a para¬
site in the intestines (foregut) and the uterus of the female. From the
laid eggs, sexually indifferent larvae develop: those which fix on the
proboscis of the female, develop after 100 hours of parasitism, into
males, those, however, which live free in water become females. Extracts
from the proboscis and foregut of the female, when added to sea water,
determine the sex of the larvae into the male. This shows that the
female produces an active, sex determining substance. The extracts
are insoluble in acetone, soluble in water and thermostabile. The sex
determining substances act probably upon the genetic constitution of the
larvae, by increasing the activity of MM-substances and thus outbalanc¬
ing the slightly stronger FF substances in the sex determining chromo¬
somes of the larvae.

INDIVIDUALITY IN NATURE. THE PSYCHOLOGIST’S VIEW¬
POINT. Glenn V. Ramsey, Professor of Psychology, University of
Texas. (Abstract) — Psychology concerns itself as a science with the
phenomena of behavior. The descriptive and objective studies of be¬
havior have repeatedly demonstrated the universality of individual
differences. The psychologist is continually concerned with the measure¬
ment and the interpretation of such differences.

In the past, psychological studies of individuality in behavior have
been primarily based on measurements of specific or segmental traits
such as seen in the studies of sensory and motor reactions, learning,
and conditioning. Also the studies in the field of personality have been
largely concerned with the investigation of specific aptitudes, interests,
types of intelligence, and traits such as introversion-extroversion, domi¬
nance and submission, etc. Practically all trait studies have provided
data which illustrate the individuality of behavior.

In recent years, psychologists have become more concerned with
the measurement of central or integrative processes, in contrast to their

104

former interests in segmental or specific trait studies. This shift has
brought into focus the “global” or “holistic” characteristics of organ-
ismic behavior and the dynamic nature of behavior. While the older
trait studies revealed information concerning individuality, the newer
approach has produced data which give even a greater emphasis to the
importance of individuality. The older trait measurements lose much
of their significance when viewed in light of the total behavioral con¬
figurations. The complexity and individuality of behavioral patterns or
characteristics become much more apparent in the newer approach. It
is now evident that individuality demands a position of greater impor¬
tance than it did in the past.

Trait measurements led psychological investigators to seek for
generalities. The newer dynamic studies of behavior have challenged
the search for communalities and have in turn called attention to the
individuality in psychological phenomena. The increasing importance
of individuality adds to the complexity of behavioral investigations, but
leads to a more fundamental understanding of behavior.

THE LIFE OF CELLS IN VITRO. C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture
Laboratory, University of Texas Medical Branch. (Abstract)-— The im¬
portance of Carrel’s demonstration that cells cultured in vitro establish
beyond question the “immortality” of cells was re-emphasized. Work
by Earle and his co-workers demonstrates the method for the cultiva¬
tion of a clone from a single cell. This group has also developed mass
culture techniques using cellophane which permits more refined bio¬
chemical studies on genetically homogenous materials.

Recent observations on the lung of a three month old human fetus
revealed that, whereas growth at 37 °C for 30 days resulted in a pattern
consisting entirely of spindle cells, corresponding cultures at room
temperature showed persistence of epithelial organization. In both
instances bronchial aborizations with attached and isolated terminal
buds could be seen. At body temperature, however, the pattern was
one of skeletogenous organization whereas at room temperature the
pattern was made up of closely packed cells which could be shown to
have the characteristics of cuboidal form in the bronchial ducts and a
squamous pattern in the terminal buds.

INDIVIDUALITY IN NATURE. BIOCHEMISTRY. Roger J. Wil¬
liams. (Abstract) — Morphological inheritance is well known and com¬
monplace, the inheritance of distinctive metabolic features has received
little attention.

The individuality which exists with respect to the detailed mechan¬
isms for carrying out metabolic transformations is no mere curiosity or
philosophical plaything but is something which vitally influences our
lives in many ways.

It is probably safe to say that most if not all drugs have as a basis
for their physiological action their influence upon, and often interfer¬
ence with, the functioning of specific metabolic transformations. If we
all had the same metabolic machinery, drugs would affect us all alike,
but they do not.

105

One of the agents in which we have become interested from this
standpoint is alcohol. We are convinced that the variable effects of this
substance on different people, particularly the development of an in¬
tense craving which constitutes the core of the alcoholism problem, is
based to a considerable degree on the distinctive metabolism which
each person possesses.

The recent interest in Buerger’s disease due to the afflication of the
British monarch is another case in point. The evidence that Buerger’s
disease is brought on by the use of tobacco is very strong, and indi-
dentally, its incidence among women is increasing rapidly. It is a rela¬
tively rare disease,' however, because we do not all have the same
metabolic machinery and we are not all affected by tobacco in the
same way.

These are but illustrations of how metabolic individuality is im¬
portant. It is also believed to be important with respect to mental
disease and in relation to the mental abilities and behavior patterns
of individuals. Metabolic patterns need to be studied in relationship to
each of the numerous problems in which they are important factors.

HOLMES THE SCIENTIFIC WRITER. Leona Meissner, Science
Club, McMurray College. (Abstract) — This paper endeavors to show
the importance of Holmes’s distinctive medical work and his scientific
explorations. He gave the best years of his life as a teacher of physiology
and anatomy.

His professional writings reveal that he is “a sinewy and aggressive
fighter, conscious of his strength, proud of the great scientific spirit he
represented, exulting in his polemical cunning.” He was a master of
style in whose phrasing there is no technical flaw.

In the years 1836 and 1837 Holmes won three of the four Boylston
prizes with three of his essays. The essay on intermittent fever is still
important and interesting as is the one on “The Utility and Importance
of Direct Exploration in Medical Practice.”

Most famous, although unrecognized during his time, is his paper on
puerperal fever, in which he recognized that it could be prevented by
the use of antiseptics.

His most influential work was an address on “Currents and Counter-
Currents in Medical Science” in which he spoke against the use of ex¬
cessive drugs. He emphasized the fact that to cure a patient means to
take care of him until his natural strength could overcome his ailment.

Holmes was the author of three little read medical novels. A recent
study by Dr. Clarence P. Oberndorf, clinical professor of psychiatry at
Columbia University, showed that in them Holmes expressed many
important concepts of psychoanalysis some fifty years before Sigmund
Freud.

Holmes has truly been called “the most eminent American con¬
tributor to preventive medicine of his day.” A bibliography of thirty-
seven sources bearing directly upon the central theme is given.

106

W. H. CURTIN & COMPANY

Domestic — Export

LABORATORY APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS

for

Industrial, Educational, Clinical and Public Service
Laboratories

HOUSTON, TEXAS, U. S. A. NEW ORLEANS, LA.

PRECISION SEISMIC SURVEYS

REFLECTION

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DATA REANALYSIS

Southern Geophysical Company

Sidon Harris, President

Sinclair Building Fort Worth, Texas

107

Professional Directory

J. BRIAN EBY

Consulting Geologist

1404 Esperson Bldg.

Charter 44776 Houston, Tex.

JOHN S. IVY

Geologist

1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas 1

LEONARD J. NEUMAN

Registered Professional Engineer

Geological and Geophysical Surveys
Petroleum Engineering Reports
Houston, Texas

Geophysics Office Engineering Office

943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705
, Ph. Fairfax 7086

PETTY GEOPHYSICAL

ENGINEERING COMPANY

Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys

317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas

LEO HORVITZ

Geochemical Prospecting

Horvitz Research Laboratories

Houston, Texas

Ph. Keystone 35545 3217 Milam Street

HUDNALL & PIRTLE

Geologists

James S. Hudnall 510 Peoples Bank Bldg.
George W. Pirtle TYLER, TEXAS

G. J. Loetterle 615 Alamo National Bldg. ,

A. Bart Brown SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS 1

MICHEL T. HALBOUTY

Consulting

Geologist and Petroleum Engineer

Shell Building

Houston 2, Texas Phone P-6376

E. E. ROSAIRE

Prospecting for Petroleum

DALLAS, TEXAS

SHERMAN NELSON

: — OIL —

1 Royalty — Leases

Seguin, Texas

H. KLAUS

Geologist

KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY

Lubbock, Texas

; WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR.

1 Consulting Geologist

2101-03 Alamo National Building

SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS

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108

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EQUIPMENT

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ELECTRICAL TESTING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

* Century is the world’s largest manufacturer of geophysical and special galvanometers

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1333 North Utica— Tulsa, Okla,, U. S. A.

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P. O. Box 2589 Houston 1, Texas

CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS
President : John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Editors : J. L. Baughman, L. W. Blau, J, G. Sinclair
Human health, hygiene and public health:

C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices.

C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin
Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos
Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities :

Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin
Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc. :

L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Cocouncillors :

Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station
Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houston
Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin
Raul Cortez, Race relations, San Antonio
Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Young scientific talent:

C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Cocouncillors :

Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M.

High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston
Conservation education and publicity. Public relations.

J. W. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin
Cocouncillors:

Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum, Dallas
Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin
Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M.

Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth

Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin
UNESCO. J. G. Sinclair, M'edical Branch, Galveston
Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls.

J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Food quality and responsible factors.

L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston
Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops.

Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas

Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . ....

Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. . . . . . . . . . —

Marine resources.

J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport
Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges.

B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton.

Cocouncillors :

Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin
Forest and range. Forests as lumber.

Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station
Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio
Underground water and rivers.

Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston
Oil and gas.

William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin

Sulphur................................... . .

Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative.

F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin
Metals

Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston
Paleontological collections.

Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin
Archeological collections.

T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin

PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workers
together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the
government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities.
ORGANIZATION: The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior
Academy, there are five Sections : Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and
Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas,
South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of science
clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in
secondary schools.

MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of
science” is eligible to membership.

PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly, the first issue to appear
March, 1949. Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters.
MEETINGS : State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the
spring of each year.

DUES: Annual members, $2.00 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 in one payment.

Sustaining Members, $5.00 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment.

Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate
as active members.

sjoSiftN insd/^

Published Quarterly at
San Marcos, Texas

Vol. 1 No. 2
June 30, 1949

Application for Entry as Second-Class Matter Pending. Act of Aug. 24, 1912

INDEX

Chemurgic crops for industry. Victor H. Schoffelmayer - -

Professional chemistry in Texas. E. P. Schoch - — - -

Anti-freeze compounds. Marshall Brown — -

Range of Colopogon pulchellus. Wm. S. Lewis and L. Liverman

Human conservation. C. P. Oliver - - — - -

Problems of migratory labor. Daniel Russell -

Corrosion in hot water systems. A. H. Ullrich - -

Groundwater conservation in Texas. Wm. F. Hughes - -

Methods of cooling SAE 1060 steel. R. L. Benson -

Radio sounding of the atmosphere. Roy E. Wilson -

Reptiles and amphibians of the Sierra Vieja.

D. L. Jameson and A. G. Flurry - -

Social Sciences and the challenge of today. Frank E. Luksa -

Sands of the Texas Gulf Coast. W. C. Rasmussen — - -

Editorial news and notes - - - -

CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS
OF THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

'

i

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Editor

Pres. Conserv. Coun.

Rep. to A.A.A.S.

V. President, Sec. I, Physical
V. Pres. Sec. II, Biological
V. Pres. Sec. Ill, Social
V. Pres. Sec. IV, Geological
V. Pres. Sec. V, Conservation
Collegiate Academy
Junior Academy

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past-President
Elected Director
Elected Director
Elected Director

Beauford Jester
Governor of Texas
Austin

E. D. DeGolyer
Consulting Geologist
Dallas

EXECUTIVE
J. Brian Eby
C. M. Pomerat
Gladys H. Baird
L. W. Blau
J. L. Baughman
J. G. Sinclair
C. D. Leake
Newton Gaines
Gordon Gunter
Frank E. Luksa
S. A. Lynch
Paul H. Walser
Charles La Motte
Greta Oppe

COUNCIL (1949)

Geologist, Esperson Bldg.
Medical, Br., U. of T.

Social Sciences

Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Marine La., G.F.O.C.

Medical Br., U. of T.

Dean, Medical Br., U. of T.
Physics, Texas Christian U.
Marine Inst., Univ. Tex.
Sociology, Southwestern
Geology, A. & M. College
Soil Conserv. Serv,

Biology, A. & M. College
Chemistry, Ball Senior High

BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1949)

J. Brian Eby
C. M. Pomerat
Gladys H. Baird
L. W. Blau
E. P. Cheatum
J. C. Godbey
W. Armstrong Price

Geologist

Medical Br., U. of T.

Social Sciences

Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Biologist, S.M.U.

Chemistry, Southwestern U.
Geologist

Houston
Galveston
Huntsville
Houston
Rockport
Galveston
Galveston
Fort Worth
Port Aransas
Georgetown
College Station
Temple
College Station
Galveston

Houston
Galveston
Huntsville
Houston
Dallas
Georgetown
Corpus Christi

BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1949)
W. R. Woolrich, Dean
Engineering, University of Texas
Austin

0. S. Petty

Petty Geophysical Company
San Antonio

J. Brian Eby
Consulting Geologist
Houston

L. W. Blau
Humble Oil & Ref. Co.

Houston

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Chairman — George E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons
Paul C.Witt, Chemistry, Abilene Christian
Alpine

G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross
Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross
Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, XL of T.

Ronald K. DeFord, Geology, U. of T.
Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar
Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology,

Mary Hardin-Baylor
Brownwood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne
College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M.
Commerce

Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E.T.S.T.C.
Corpus Christi

W. Armstrong Price, Geologist, Box I860

Dallas

E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S. M. U.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy,

4440 Beverly Dr.

Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical
Hardy Kemp, Southwestern Medical

Denton

B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C.

Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W.

Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U.

Galveston

C. M'. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U.
Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T.
Huntsville

Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C.
Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I.
Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology,

Texas Tech

J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech
Arthur W, Young, Agronomy,

Texas Tech
Nacogdoches

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography,
S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer,

Incarnate Word

Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.S.T.C.
Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton
Hugh B. Smith, Biology, John Tarleton

Waco

W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor
Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor

FOREWORD

You will note that some changes have been made in the format of
this issue, which is Number 2 of Volume I. Headings have been placed
on all of the pages and abstracts, and bibliographies are in smaller type
to save space for papers themselves. The Editorial Board will be glad
to have your reaction on this as we wish to make this your Journal and
to make it serve you as well as we possibly can.

It will interest all of you, we are sure, to know that with Volume I,
Number 3, which will be issued September 30, what we hope will be
the permanent format of the Journal will be attained. We have worked
out with the printer a form of type somewhat different from that in the
first two issues, which will allow us to use italics instead of black face
and which we feel will make it possible for us to present a more attrac¬
tive Journal.

We are badly in need, however, of one or two good papers, well il¬
lustrated, on topics of general interest, somewhat after the type used in
Scientific Monthly. Any such paper will receive our most careful con¬
sideration.

The Editor.

Ml 1

2 1949

\

Vol. I

Texas Journal of Science

June 30, 1949

No. 2

CBEMURGIC CROPS FOR INDUSTRY

Victor H. Schoffelmayer
Southwest Research Institute
Dallas, Texas

Scientific research in recent years has made notable contributions
to the industrial use of crops and crop wastes. This type of research,
chiefty conducted for many years by forward-looking scientists of a few
state and private experiment stations, more recently has had the benefit
of four, large, well equipped regional research laboratories under di¬
rection of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. These four regional
laboratories are located as follows:

Northern — Peoria, Illinois; Southern— New Orleans, La.; Eastern —
Philadelphia; Western — Albany, California.

Each does a special type of research originally specified from Wash¬
ington. More recently, however, the scope of this research has been
greatly widened to meet steadily increasing needs not only of the vari¬
ous regions but of the nation as a whole.

Our state experiment stations in the meantime have enlarged their
agricultural research, perhaps because of the keen competition set up
on a regional basis.

Also, a number of large privately financed research institutions
have come into existence, either endowed by enlightened men of
wealth, or supported by progressive business men, bankers, land own¬
ers and others. The net result is highly important to our Texas region.

TEXAS AN EMPIRE

Because of Texas’ vast size, vast spaces suited to the production of
crops, forests and animals, and its great range of climatic conditions and
soil types, it virtually amounts to an empire capable of producing per¬
haps the largest array of agricultural raw materials of any state.

Gradually there has been a trend away from cotton, which domi¬
nated Texas farming operations for most of a century. Crop diversifi¬
cation has been hastened as a result of the general introduction of some
230,000 farm tractors, 35,000 grain harvester-combines, 7,000 mechanical
cotton harvesters and pickers, and a formidable array of multi-row
tilling equipment which has virtually caused the disappearance of the
horse and mule over large areas.

As the trend continues towards the raising of mechanically har¬
vested crops, such as the sorghum grains, flax, rice, winter wheat, oil
seeds and others, larger percentages of crops formerly wholly fed to
livestock now are diverted to industrial use.

A notable example of this significant change in the Texas agricul¬
tural economy is the astonishing inroads of milo (a grain sorghum)
into what only twenty years ago was almost wholly a cotton territory

4

Texas Journal of Science

in a number of counties along the Texas Gulf Coast around Corpus
Christi.

As a result of this remarkable change a large Eastern processing
industry — Corn Products Refining Company — is completing a $20,000,000
plant near Corpus Christi to process millions of bushels of milo into in¬
dustrial starches, dextrose syrup and sugar, and vegetable oils. This up
till now is the largest single example of chemurgic use of a former live¬
stock feed material on a commercial scale. It, however, is merely the
beginning of this new trend.

Again it is important to state that, without the benefit of scientific
research and breeding of low-headed grain sorghum types, there doubt¬
less would not have developed such a huge agro-industrial project in
Texas.

Let us stop to reflect a moment right here as to the nature of all
crops and their possible destiny in our complicated modern economy.

All plants are largely a composite of carbohydrates, protein and
minerals. Most of these raw materials come from the atmosphere —
air, water and sunshine. Solar energy transmutes carbon dioxide and
moisture into plant structure which man for centuries has used as food
and fiber.

Modern chemical research has made possible the conversion of these
former food and feed materials into needed articles of industry— plastics,
technical oils, industrial starches and adhesives, ethyl alcohol and acetic
acid (upon which a vast industry could be established) resins and gums,
paper, rayon, aromatics, essences, detergents and many others.

NEW CHEMURGIC USES

As we go deeper into the chemical era and into the vast field of
physics we begin to realize that from our crops and our forests will
come increasing quantities of industrial materials to replace fast wan¬
ing supplies of iron, steel, copper, lead, zinc, nickel and others.

Modern research has produced chemically treated wood virtually
equal to mild steel in strength. A tree, through chemurgic treatment,
can become a wide variety of papers from newsprint and kraft to those
of the highest quality. Or it can become alpha cellulose which in turn is
fashioned into ethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate or cellulose nitrate and
spun into gossamer materials perhaps equal to or superior to natural
silk, linen or cotton.

If we stop to consider, in a ton of sawdust (piled high around
our thousands of lumber mills in East Texas and other parts of Amer¬
ica) there are 1,100 pounds of glucose sugar and 600 pounds of lignin,
and that the sugar can be converted into 60 gallons of ethyl alcohol or
motor fuel, or into 200 gallons of livestock syrup (practically equal to
Cuban blackstrap molasses).

But what is even more fantastic — we could actually eat our trees —
by converting the cellulose into sugars and taking advantage of atmos¬
pheric bacteria to transform these apparent waste materials into protein
testing 52 per cent or much higher than either cottonseed meal or soy¬
bean flour. The Germans, Finns, Norwegians and Swedes turned waste

Chemurgic Crops for Industry

5

sawdust into protein feed and food during World War II. We could do
likewise if we ever need to.

USING CROP WASTES

We are gathered today in San Antonio, only a stone’s throw from
the rich Lower Rio Grande Valley with its wealth of crops and their
gigantic wastes. That Valley is an important producer of citrus fruits,
most of which are processed into juice. Since one-half of every grape¬
fruit or orange is peel our processors and producers are confronted with
a problem of waste disposal. We have learned how to dehydrate citrus
peel into livestock feed to supplement corn and other feeds, but more
recently we have discovered that there is valuable pectin in these peels,
and pectin has a high market value and is in great demand as a new
and popular chemurgic raw material of industry.

We can extract the pectin from the peel and still have an excellent
livestock feed left. Similarly we should extract the essential oils in our
orange and grapefruit peel and sell them as perfume bases.

One large Valley firm — Universal Colloid Company — for the last
eight years has been making metallic pectinates to supply an ever-
increasing demand by the pharmaceutical industry. Some 50,000,000
pounds of pectin are needed to supply various industrial needs. Cali¬
fornia and Washington and Oregon in the past largely supplied the
demand with pectin extracted from their wastes of the apple and pear
canning and dehydration industries. But a feed shortage on the Pacific
Coast, due to the sensational population increase in that region, has
diverted these apple and pear wastes (pomace) into livestock feed chan¬
nels and our Magic Valley has a greater opportunity than ever to man-
facture pectin.

You may ask what the outlets for pectin are. Pectin is used as an
easily digested covering for phamaceuticals — pills, capsules — for coat¬
ings on gum drops and sticky candies in moist climates to give them
flowability in coin-operated slot machines, as skins for sausage and
numerous other foods, to keep out bacteria and air and with no disposal
problem (since the cover becomes a digestible food).

Still other uses for pectin are in combination with such metals as
zinc, copper, cobalt, iron as medicinals or as arresters of fungus attack
or as flame-arresters when applied to draperies, walls, etc. Pectin is
displacing various established synthetic plastics and resins because of
its ease of application and quicker disposability in the case of food
covers.

PECAN SHELL TANNIC ACID

Texas is a large producer of pecans. One-half of the pecan is shell,
and therefore considered a waste. To the enlightened chemurgist, how¬
ever, pecan shells are a gold mine. In Weatherford and in Lufkin two
separate firms for several years have processed pecan shells. J. R. Flem¬
ing at Weatherford discovered that in those pecan shells piled up around
the large pecan meat extracting plants, such as you see in San Antonio,
Dallas, Houston, Memphis and other centers, contain about 6 per cent
small fragments of meats. By crushing the shells he obtains what is

6

Texas Journal of Science

considered as the country’s finest perfume base oil. In the remaining
shells there are 18 to 26 per cent of tannic acid which he now extracts
and ships in tank cars to eastern leather and other industries. Finally
he and the plant at Lufkin, operated by H. A. Wittliff, grind the shells
into a fine flour used as an extender for Bakelite and other plastics.
Here you have a perfect example of chemurgy at work in Texas. How
many other crop and fruit wastes await similar industrial uses I leave
to your imagination. We must learn that all crop and forest wastes are
merely chemical raw materials in the hands of the wide awake pro¬
cessor. In many instances these converted wastes constitute the differ¬
ence between an industry’s profit and loss.

Let us turn to our vast cedar forests of Southwest Texas and the
Edwards Plateau Region. In recent years a few enterprising processors
have set up plants in the wilderness to extract various types of cedar
oil and essence from the wood, the leaves and the berries. Several of
these plants are operating around New Braunfels. Isn’t that a lot better
than to merely cut down our cedar trees and burn them on tens of
thousands of acres because ranchmen want more grass for their cattle?
Why not combine the two operations?

We could go on indefinitely. Let’s turn to new chemurgic crops —
safflower and sunflower seed, flaxseed and tungnuts as new sources of
greately needed vegetable oils — paint, varnish and lacquer bases, al¬
most entirely imported in the past. Why not grow them and add new,
profitable crops to cur agriculture?

Why not essentials and aromatics from Dalmatian sage, Japanese
mint, detergents from the roots of our wild yucca plants, tannic acid
from another wild plant of the Southwest — canaigre — or waxes equal
to imported Brazilian carnauba from the jojoba and the candelilla?
There is one processor of candelilla wax in West Texas who ships it
away by the millions of pounds a year. Why not grow this crop like
sorghum or cotton?

We need to extend our research into these new chemurgic fields.
We have neglected them in the past but we can not afford to neglect
them in the future. We are running out of many materials which once
were abundant but which are becoming scarce because of the terrific
demands of a major war. Let’s talk chemurgic crops for a change!

Let us also learn to use corn cobs and waste cottonseed burrs, now
piled mountain-high around our West Texas gins, and obtain furfural
from them to speed up our petroleum refining processes. Why depend
upon Iowa for our furfural now made from oat hulls?

Then think of the many other wastes in such an area of canning
and dehydration as the Lower Rio Grande Valley where supplemental
processing industries can be erected alongside of the canning and juice
extraction plants to make not only livestock feed but vitamins from
waste carotene, and the chlorophyll in leaves and fruits and vegetables.
Texas is ready for a new orientation in its agro-industrial economy, one
which will bring agriculture and manufacturing into better balance
with one another. These two are natural partners anyhow, but we need
science and research to show us the way and give us the “know how.”

Professional Chemistry in Texas

7

PROFESSIONAL CHEMISTS IN TEXAS PRIOR TO 1920

E. P. SCHOCH

Bureau of Industrial Chemistry-
University of Texas

This paper was primarily intended to be a history cf Chemistry in Texas up to the
present time. However, the rapid growth of the petroleum industry since 1920, and the
still more rapid growth of the chemical industry in Texas since the war made this subject
too large for the time available to- prepare this paper. Hence it has been limited to the
time prior to 1920.

Limitations of space also made it necessary to confine the list of names to those who
were chemists by profession, although it is realized that many others have contributed to
the science during this period.

There are likely to be many names omitted from this list who should be included ; the
writer will appreciate being furnished with information concerning such parties.

An asterisk at a name denotes that detailed biographical data concerning that name is
found in AMERICAN MEN OF SCIENCE — and that this datum has been copied and is
presented in the Appendix in alphabetical order.

CHEMISTRY AT AUSTIN COLLEGE— SHERMAN

The minutes of the Board of Trustees of Austin College of May 17,
1855 show the following interesting entry which indicates that Austin
College was the first in Texas to teach chemistry. The quotation follows:

“Meeting in session at Huntsville, Texas, Be it resolved that Col.
Henderson Yoakum be authorized to make a trip to the north to pur¬
chase such additional apparatus and chemicals as is deemed necessary
for the science department of Austin College.” Col. Yoakum was a
veteran of the Mexican War under General Taylor, and at the close of
the war he became a charter member of the Board of Trustees and the
first secretary of the Board of Trustees of Austin College (1850 to 1855).
He was a noted historian of Texas. Two of Col. Yoakum’s colleagues
who commissioned him to make this trip were Sam Houston and Anson
Jones. Both had served as Presidents and later governors of Texas.

The minutes of the College show the heads of the Department of
Chemistry of Austin College during its ninety-seven years of history
as follows:

Professor Washington McCartney
Rev. A. E. Thom
Professor B. F. Grady
Professor Andrew T. McKinney
Professor W. D. Vinson
Professor J. C. Edmonds
Professor C. C. Scott *

D. Sci., Univ. of Heidelberg
Professor B. F. Armendt
B.A., M.A., Austin College
Ph D., Univ. of Texas
Professor Geo. L. Landolt *

B.A., M.A., Austin College
Ph. D., Univ. of Pittsburgh

The present chemistry building was constructed in 1913. It is a
three-story, fireproof structure, with laboratories and classrooms on
each of the three floors. At the present time the biology department is

Feb. 25, 1853 to June, 1853
June 29, 1853 to Dec. 1858
June 22, 1859 to June 28, 1861
Sept. 3, 1862 to June 24, 1874
Sept. 3, 1878 to June, 1883
June 13, 1883 to June 12, 1889
June 12, 1889 to June, 1924

June, 1924 to June, 1935

June, 1935 to present

8

Texas Journal of Science

housed in the chemistry building, but in a, short time the biology depart¬
ment will be moved into new quarters nearing completion, releasing
space that will be converted into general chemistry laboratories.

The present student body at Austin College is 586, of which 171
are taking chemistry. The departmental library is well equipped. Quite
a number of Master’s theses have been worked out in the two research
laboratories, but at the present time no graduate work is being given
in the department because of the large number of veterans who are
doing undergraduate work in chemistry.

CHEMISTRY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS

The first professor of chemistry at the University of Texas was Dr.
J. W. Mallet, formerly Chief Chemist of the Confederate States. He
came to the University of Texas in 1883, when it opened its doors for
the first time. However, Dr. Mallet did not stay more than one session,
but returned to the University of Virginia where he had been Pro¬
fessor of Chemistry previously, and where he remained for the rest of
his life. He was succeeded in 1884 by Dr. Edgar Everhart,* who was
professor of chemistry until June, 1894.

Dr. Everhart was an aggressive teacher and research worker. His
enthusiasm enabled him to secure from the State Legislature an appro¬
priation for a laboratory, in 1891, it being entirely overlooked at that
time that such an appropriation is against a constitutional provision
which prohibits the legislature from appropriating money for buildings
for the University.

Dr. Everhart worked particularly on biochemical problems — one
of his publications dealing with the composition and digestibility of
human milk. After leaving the University, Dr. Everhart became Chemist
of the Georgia Geological Survey where he remained until he passed
away in 1937.

In 1894, Dr. Henry W. Harper * became Professor of Chemistry.
In 1897, he was joined by Dr. James R. Bailey,* an organic chemist
from Munich, Germany, and by the writer.* The latter two became
professors in 1911. Research became the watchword of the laboratory,
and many papers on organic, analytical and physical chemistry were
published by both students and faculty members. It was not until 1919
that a further addition to the faculty was made; this was Dr. W. A.
Felsing,* who then came in as assistant professor, and soon advanced
to a full professorship. Dr. H. L. Lochte * joined the staff in 1922, and
Dr. H. R. Henze * in 1926, but this takes us beyond the 1920 limit set
for this paper. Dr. Bailey passed away in, 1941, and Dr. Harper in 1943.
Their fine characters and lofty ambitions left an indelible imprint not
only on the writer, but on all who had been students under them.

All the chemistry teaching was given under the title “Department
of Chemistry” until 1919 when the Department of Chemical Engineering
was first created. In 1921, it was again merged with the Department of
Chemistry because the attendance in chemical engineering then was
too small to require separate administration; but by 1939 it had become
so large that Chemical Engineering was again set up as a department
of its own.

Professional Chemistry in Texas

9

CHEMISTRY AT THE MEDICAL
BRANCH OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS

Instruction in chemistry and toxicology was begun in 1891 at this
school by Dr. Seth Morris. He equipped this department as well at that
time as perhaps any such school was then equipped in the United States.
In 1898 he was succeeded, by Dr. A. 1. Austin and the latter was suc¬
ceeded by Dr. G. F. Gracey in 1910.

In 1913 Dr. William R. Rose joined the staff as professor of biologi¬
cal chemistry. He was succeeded — in 1922 — by Dr. Byron M. Hendricks.
Both Dr. Rose and Dr. Hendricks are well known for their many sci¬
entific contributions in this field.

Dr. Meyer Bodansky joined the staff in 1919, and remained there
until his untimely death in 1942. During these years Dr. Bodansky rose
to real eminence in his profession and his textbook on physiological
chemistry was the leading text in the United States.

In 1921 Dr. H. R. Henze joined the staff of this department to devote
himself to pharmaceutical chemistry. When, in 1926, the College of
Pharmacy was moved to Austin, Dr. Henze then joined the faculty of
the Department of Chemistry there, and his activities there are de¬
scribed in the notes above concerning this department.

Since 1920 the instruction in chemistry at the Galveston Medical
School has expanded greatly, but this period of time extends beyond
the time which this article is to cover.

CHEMISTRY AT THE A. & M. COLLEGE OF TEXAS

Professional chemistry may be said to have had its beginning at
the A,. & M. College of Texas with the appointment of H. H. Harrington,
in 1888, as Professor of Chemistry. He was also State Chemist and
Chemist of the Agricultural Experiment Station. He served in this
capacity until 1905, when he became President of the A. & M. College.
He did research work on the following subjects: the effect of feed stuffs
on the nature of butter fat, the digestibility of feed-stuffs, the compo¬
sition of certain plants, the chemical characteristics of the rice plant
and the composition of Texas soils. Dr. Harrington was a high-minded
man with an intense desire to help Texas agriculture. He was instru¬
mental in the passage of the fertilizer law which required that every bit
of fertilizer and insect poisons sold in Texas have to have a certificate
issued by the State Experiment Station stating its composition.

When Dr. Harrington became president of the College in 1905, the
chemistry work was divided. Dr. J. C. Blake * became Professor of
Chemistry and Dr. G. S. Fraps * became State Chemist and Chemist to
the Experiment Station. The Feed. Control Law was passed in July,
1905, and this required the making of chemical analyses both for control
purposes and to ascertain the composition of commercial feeds in order
that suitable guarantees could be made. The first Feed Control report
was published as Bulletin 90, in 1906, and reports containing analyses
have been published almost every year since. The Feed Control Law
was revised in 1907, amended in 1911 and 1917 and codified in 1925.
The original feed law provided only for guarantees of protein and fat
but the revised law required in addition, guarantees of crude fiber,

10

Texas Journal of Science

nitrogen-free extract, and some other ingredients. Passage of the Adams
Act in 1906 by Congress increased the chemical and other investigations
of the Agricultural Experiment Station. The Agricultural Experiment
Station building was erected in 1909 and occupied by the Division of
Chemistry and all other Divisions of the Experiment Station. The Ad¬
ministration Building of the Agricultural Experiment Station building
was erected in 1918 and the old building was renamed the Chemistry
Research Building. A course in Chemical Engineering was established
in 1909.

Dr. C. C. Hedges * was appointed Associate Professor of Chemistry
in 1912 and became head of the department when J. C. Blake resigned
in 1913. In 1919 M. K. Thornton Jr. joined the staff as Professor of
Industrial Chemistry. The Department’s name was changed to Chemistry
and Chemical Engineering in 1908 and back to Department of Chemistry
when a separate Department of Chemical Engineering was established
in 1940. The Engineering Experiment Station was established in 1914.
The chemical work, begun much later, deals chiefly with water supplies
and purification of sewage. A new chemistry building, for teaching,
was erected in 1929-1932.

In 1915, the Texas Cotton Seed Crushers Association installed a
cottonseed oil mill at the College for instruction and research. The
equipment has been added to from time to time since then. Research
has been done on the time and temperature of cooking, the amount of
water added, the destruction of gossypol, and other details affecting
the manufacturing process and the quality of the product. A book
“Cottonseed Products” was written by M. K. Thornton, Professor of
Industrial Chemistry and published in 1932 by the Oil Mill Gazetteer,
Wharton, Texas. Dr. C. S. Lyman, of the Swine Husbandry Division,
has published work on the determination of gossypol in cottonseed
meal, the preparation of cottonseed meal free from gossypol, and the
determination of amino acids in feeds. Dr. P. P. Pearson, Nutritionist
of the Division of Veterinary Science, has published articles on certain
vitamin requirements of domestic animals.

An insecticide law administered jointly by the Commissioner of
Agriculture at Austin and the State Chemist at College Station requires
analyses of insecticides and fungicides. Circulars containing analyses
and other information have been published in 1944 and 1945.

The outstanding figure of this period of chemistry at the A. & M.
College of Texas is Dr. G. S. Fraps. He received a Ph. D. degree at the
Johns Hopkins University in 1899, was an assistant chemist at the North
Carolina Experiment Station till 1903, and since then he has been at the
A. & M. College. In August, 1945, he retired to limited service status.
His splendid service to the State, and achievements as a chemist are
well expressed in the following quotation from the News Letter of
August 15, 1945, issued by the Texas Agricultural Station:

“His broad and exact knowledge of the subject immediately im¬
pressed workers in other states and secured active cooperation from
many of the nation’s great chemists. Thus for more than 40 years, Dr.
Fraps has been one of the leading spirits in the progress made in the
knowledge of chemistry and its use in making the most of the whole
agricultural enterprise. Many leading chemists have anchored their

Professional Chemistry in Texas

11

work to the bench marks established through Dr. Fraps’ research. This
forty-year period has witnessed amazing advances in chemical knowl¬
edge and especially in agricultural chemistry, and some of this progress
is due to the orderly statements and methodical procedures developed
by Dr. Fraps. Not only has he been a leading figure in the soils and
fertilizer phases including the regulation of the manufacture and sale
of commercial fertilizer but in the proper preparation and distribution
of feeding stuffs and practical methods of evaluating the various feed¬
ing constitutents.

“As State Chemist, he has guided the formulation of helpful regu¬
lations to govern the distribution of fertilizers and the use of a limited
number of grades and his administration of the fertilizer control law of
Texas has been outstanding and epochal, serving as a guide to other
states and as a helpful force for those engaged in the manufacture and
sale of fertilizers.”

CHEMISTRY AT TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

Texas Christian University was founded in 1873 at Thorpe’s Spring,
Texas, with Randolph Clark as professor of science, but there is no
definite record of the wTork covering the years up to 1887.

From 1887 to 1899 W. B. Parks, B.S., M.A. and Ph. D., T.C.U., was
professor of science. In 1904, he returned to become professor of chem¬
istry and physics, and served until 1916. From 1899 to 1904 the science
instruction was given by C. M. Young, B.S. and from 1901 to 1904, by
A. F. Armstrong, A.M.

Prominent among the later professors are:

F. W. Hogan, 1921 —

J. L. Whitman, 1927-1945
F. M. Liste, M.A., 1943—

H. B. Hardt, Ph. D., 1946-

CHEMISTRY AT BAYLOR UNIVERSITY

Instruction in chemistry was begun at Baylor by Professor W. W.
Battle in the fall of 1898. When, in 1911, Professor Battle became Direc¬
tor of the State Food and Dairy Commission, he was succeeded by Dr.
E. Emmett Reid,* Ph. D., Johns Hopkins. The erection of the George
W. Carroll Science Hall — largely devoted to chemistry — gave this sub¬
ject the needed facility for growth at this school. In 1908, Professor
Reid went to Johns Hopkins where he eventually became Professor of
Organic Chemistry. He was succeeded at Baylor by Professor W. T.
Gooch,* Ph. D., Chicago, who has been in charge of the chemistry in¬
struction there since. The chemistry department has since grown to such
an extent that it now has a faculty of five members,

CHEMISTRY AT SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY

Chemistry teaching began in this institution in the fall of 1891 with
Professor R. S. Heyer in charge. He was joined by Dr. John Reedy *
about 1912, and in 1915 both of them were transferred to the Southern
Methodist University at Dallas. Then Dr. J. C. Godby,* Ph. D., Chicago,
became professor of chemistry.

12

Texas Journal of Science

CHEMISTRY AT THE SAM HOUSTON STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE

The first teacher of chemistry at this institution was Robert B.
Hally. He was succeeded in 1901 by Professor Claude Bohn Farrington,
B.S., Vanderbilt. The chemistry faculty was increased in 1925 by the
addition of Professor L. E. King, B.S., U. of Texas, and in 1936, by the
addition of Professor Willis W. Floyd,* Ph. D., Iowa.

CHEMISTRY AT HARDIN - SIMMON S UNIVERSITY

Simmons College — now Hardin-Simmons University — was organized
in 1893 but no serious scientific study was pursued before 1902. Dr.
Julius Olsen,* Ph. D., Yale, came as Dean and Head of Mathematics and
Sciences at that time. He developed and equipped a department to
teach two years of physics and two years of chemistry. Biology was
added as a college department in 1914 and David Wesley Arnett, M.A.,
Wake Forrest, has taught in that department until now. Following the
World War No. 1 work was expanded again with professors of physics
and of chemistry elected and a major in each science made possible.
Otto O. Watts,* Ph. D., Stanford, was elected professor of chemistry
and Dr. Olsen taught physics. In 1922 another chemistry expansion
brought Hyram R. Arrant, M.A., Vanderbilt, into the department.

CHEMISTRY AT THE NORTH TEXAS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE

According to the writer’s personal recollection, the early teaching of
chemistry in this institution was in the hands of Professors W. N.
Masters, L. D., Borden, and T. A. Willard, and it could not have been in
better hands. Concerning Professor Masters, it may be said that his
enthusiasm and vigor was contageous: he succeeded in teaching chem¬
istry in spite of an overload of teaching duties and a scarcity of equip¬
ment.

The fruit of the work of these pioneers is seen in the splendid staff
of chemistry teachers which this college now has. They are: J. S.
Carrico,! J. J. Spurlock,* L. P. Floyd,’ R. B. Escue, and Price Truitt.
The high degree of scholarship, and the research contributions already
made by these men indicate that the college has the right atmosphere
for sound teaching and progress.

CHEMISTRY AT THE COLLEGE OF MINES AND METALLURGY

The College of Mines and Metallurgy opened in September 1914
with F. H. Seamon as professor of chemistry. W. W. Lake was added to
the staff in 1927 and W. H. Ball in 1929. In 1940, Professor Seamon
retired and was succeeded by W. W. Lake as chairman of the depart¬
ment. In 1940 J. L. Abernethy was added and was succeeded by Robert
G. Mers in 1941. J. A. Hancock was also added to the staff in 1941. Dr.
Mers resigned in 1945. The present staff includes:

* W. W. Lake, Ph. D., Chicago, Professor and Chairman Dept.

W. H. Ball, M.S., Iowa State, Assistant Professor.

J. A. Hancock, M.S., Gonzaga Univ., Assistant Professor.

W. H. Norman, M.S., Texas A. & M., Assistant Professor.

J. W. Scruggs, B.S., Texas A. & M., Instructor.

Barbara Mellen, B.S., Texas College of Mines, Instructor.

Sylvia Galatzan, B.S., Texas College of Mines, Instructor.

Professional Chemistry in Texas

13

CHEMISTRY AT THE RICE INSTITUTE

The Rice Institute was formally opened the fall of 1912 but its
first catalogue gives the course announcements for 1916-1917. In this
appears the name of Harry B. Weiser, Ph. D., Cornell, as instructor in
chemistry. Since 1920, he has been professor of chemistry. Professor
Weiser devoted his life to the study of colloids, and is an outstanding
leader in this subject. He is the dominating figure in chemistry at Rice,
and his example has led the work there admirably.

In 1921, A. J. Hartsook * joined the chemistry staff at Rice as in¬
structor in industrial chemistry, and in 1928 he became assistant pro¬
fessor in charge of the Department of Chemical Engineering.

During these years there have been many brilliant men as instruc¬
tors in chemistry at this Institute. Rice stands for high attainments in
scholarship and research, and this ambition impresses itself indelibly
upon its student body.

CHEMISTRY AT THE SOUTHERN METHODIST UNIVERSITY

When this institution opened its doors in 1915, Professor John
Reedy *, Ph. D., Yale, was in charge of the instruction. He was suc¬
ceeded in 1918 by Professor Edward O. Heuse,* Ph. D., Illinois, who is
still active in teaching there. The research work of the department has
resulted in a number of publications. The patience and perseverence
with which Professor Heuse and his over-worked staff are continuing
their work cannot but elicit the admiration of all who know him and
them.

In 1920, Dr. May Whitsett,* Ph. D., Columbia, joined the staff as
associate professor. She is a talented research worker on vitamins. In
1941 she married Dr. B. J. Hopkins, Professor of Chemistry at the Uni¬
versity of Illinois, Urbana.

CHEMISTS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN LABORATORIES

These laboratories were organized and primarily directed by F. B.
Porter, B.S. and Ch. E., University of Kansas; N. C. Hamner, M.A., Uni¬
versity of Virginia, and R. H. Fash, B.S., Armour Institute. These labo¬
ratories were established in 1912 and they are now operating in Dallas,
Fort Worth, San Antonio, Houston and Corpus Christi. While their
routine work concerns itself primarily with the analyzing of minerals
and commercial products, yet they do experimental development work
to produce new products, or to improve production methods. They have
established a splendid record for ability and integrity.

The Houston laboratory was established in 1902 by P. S. Tilson, a
graduate of A. & M. College of Texas. His was really the earliest com¬
mercial chemical laboratory in Texas. After his death in 1925, the labo¬
ratory was acquired by the Southwestern Laboratories.

THE GALVESTON LABORATORY

The Galveston Laboratory was established by Mr. Felix Paquin in
1909. Mr. Paquin was unique in holding to the principle that he must
do, personnaly, all the analytical work done in his laboratory. He em¬
ployed only helpers, and actually did all essential parts of the chemical

14

Texas Journal of Science

work himself. A Frenchman with the vivacity and spirit characteristic
of the French, he made a visit to his laboratory something which the
writer will never forget.

CHEMISTS IN THE STATE PURE FOOD AND DRUG LABORATORY

This laboratory was opened in Denton, in 1907, with J. S. Abbott as

director, and - Hoffman and E. H. Golaz as chemists. In 1911, it was

moved to Austin with W. W. Battle as director. Since 1928, it has been
a part of the State Health Department with Mr. Golaz as director.

Mr. Golaz was an able and painstaking food analyst, and it is due
to his vigilance and integrity that food adulterations in Texas have
been suppressed to such an extent as not to be noticeable.

TEXAS’ OUTSTANDING CHEMIST IN INDUSTRY:

DR. A. M. McAFEE OF THE GULF REFINING CO.

Dr. A. M. McAfee, a Texan who received his undergraduate train¬
ing at the University of Texas, and his Ph. D. at Columbia, has been
active as chief chemist for the Gulf Refining Company in Texas since
1913. It was he who showed the value of aluminum chloride as a catalyst
for changing the composition of petroleum hydrocarbons. But when he
started, aluminum chloride cost $1.50 a pound, and he realized that it
could not be used technically unless it was produced more cheaply. He
then elaborated a method of making aluminum chloride which reduced
its cost to 5 cents a pound. This achievement is so great that it may be
considered as making up for the scarcity of other advances in chemical
manufacturing methods in Texas during the period before 1920.

APPENDIX

Biographical Data from AMERICAN MEN OF SCIENCE
for All Names Marked with an Asterisk.

Bailey, Prof. James Robinson, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. Chemistry. Houston,
Texas, Dec. 11, 68. A.B., Texas, 91 ; Ph. D., Munich, 97 ; Leipzig, 00-01. Asst. Chem. Texas,
91, tutor, 91-94, instr, 96-00, adj. prof, 01, prof. org. chem, 11. Assoc, ed, “Jour. Am.
Chem. Soc.” A. A. ; Chem. Soc. ; Petrol. Inst, (director research project No. 20) ; Texas Acad.
Semicarbazid acids ; hydrazin acids ; hydrazo-acids ; hydantoins ; mustard oils and hydrazo
compounds ; use of cyanic and prussic acids in glacial acetic acids ; conjugate systems ;
petroleum bases ; destructive distillation of cotton seed meal.

Blake, Dr. John Charles, 1514 E. 68th St., Chicago, Ill. Chemistry. Ottumwa, Iowa, 80.
B.S., Colorado 01 ; Ph. D., Yale, 03. Research assoc, physical chem, Mass. Inst. Tech, 03-05 ;
asst, physicist, Bur. Standards, 05-06 ; prcf. chem. and chem. eng, Agr. and Mech. Col. of
Texas, 08-13 ; chem, Hahnemann Med. Col, Ill, 13-24, dean, 20-24 ; research chemist, Inst.
Am. Meat Packers, Chicago, 29-32 ; retired. Colloids ; dextrins ; determination of nitrates.

Carrico, Dr. James Leon, 1711 W. Hickory St., Denton, Texas. Chemistry. Sanger, Texas,
Nov. 22, 06. A.B., N. Texas State Teachers Col, 27, B.S., 29 ; fellow, Texas, 29-31, A.M., 31 ;
Henry Lawes fellow, Calif. Inst. Tech., 32-35, Ph. D., 35. Assoc, prof., chem, N. Texas State
Teachers Col., 31-32 ; prof, physics and chem., Lamar Col., 35-36 ; pyrolysis research, Texas
Co., 36-Texas Acad. Photohalogenation of compounds having a double bond between carbon
atoms ; pyrolysis of pure hydrocarbons ; determination of isoparaffin content of hydrocarbon
mixtures.

Everhart, Dr. Edgar;, 150 N. Jackson St., Atlanta, Ga. Chemistry. Stokes Co, N. C’.,
April 8, 54. A.B., Racine, 73, A.M., 75 ; Columbia, 74-75 ; Fresenius’ Lab, Wiesbaden, 76 ;
Ph. D., Freiburg, 78. Asst, chem, Stevens, 78-84 ; prof. Texas, 84-94 ; Cox, 94-97 ; chemist,
Ga. Geol. Surv, 04. Chem. Gesell. Organic and physiological chemistry.

Felsing, Prof. William August, 3007 Washington Square, Austin, Texas. Physical and
inorganic chemistry. Denton, Texas, May 19, 91. A.B., Texas, 13, A.M., 15 ; Savage fellow.

Professional Chemistry in Texas

15

Mass. Inst. Tech, 17-18, Ph. D., 18. Tutor chem, Texas, 13-16, Asst. Prof, 19, assoc, prof,
19-25, prof, 25 — Capt. C.W.S. Chem. Soc. ; Texas Sci. Club; Texas Acad. Equation of state;
free energy and electromotive work ; thermochemistry ; low temperature work ; selenids ;
non-aqueous solutions ; refrigerating fluids.

Fraps, Dr. George Stronach, College Station, Texas. Chemistry. Raleigh, N. C., Sept. 9,
76. B.S., N. C. State Col. 96 ; fellow, Hopkins, 98-99, Ph. D„ 99. Asst, chem, N. C. State
Col, 95-96, asst, prof, 99-03, ast chemist, Exp. Sta, 99-03 ; Agr. and Mech. Col. of Texas,
03-04, assoc, chemist, 04-05, acting chemist, 05-06, chemist, 06 — assoc, prof, chem, col, 04-05,
acting prof, 05-06, assoc, prof, 06-12 ; state chemist, Texas, 06 — A. A., ; Chem. Soc ; Agr.
Chem. (pres, 13); Soc. Agron ; Soil Sci. Soc; Soc. Animal Nutrition; Assn. Feed Control
Officials (pres, 29); Int. Soc.. Soil Sci. Digestion experiments; soils; nitrification; phos¬
phoric acid ; methods of agricultural analysis ; productive values of feed ; vitamins ; min¬
erals in feeds.

Godbey, Prof. John Campbell, Southwestern University, Georgetown, Texas. Chemistry.
Monroe Co., Mo. July 4, 82. A.B., Cent. Col. (Mo.), 04, A.M., 05; Missouri, 05; Vanderbilt,
08-10; Leipzig, 11-12. Teacher, pub. sch Mo. 05-08; Cent. Col. (Mo.), 10-13; Southern (Ala.),
13-17; prof. chem. and biol. and head dept. chem. Southwestern (Texas), 17 — AA. ; Chem.
Soc. (chairman, cent. Texas sect, 28) ; fel. Texas Acad, (pres, 35). General chemistry; water
gas and its residue ; history of mercury ; camphor from cedar leaves ; slide rule for correct¬
ing gas volume.

Gooch, Prof. Wilby T., 808 Speight Ave., Waco, Texas. Chemistry. Waco, Texas, Dec.
22, 85. B.S., Baylor, 06, M.S., 08 ; Ph. D., Chicago 18. Prof, chem, Baylor, 08— chemist,
C'ity Water Works, Waco, 18— A. A. ; Chem Soc (past chairman, Texas sect) ; Water Works
Asn ; Texas Water Works Asn (pres, 24) ; fel. Texas Acad. The effect of light on the ve¬
locity of saponification of ethyl acetate ; the velocity coefficient of saponification of methyl
acetate ; halogen reactivity ; ethylene chlorbromide and chloriodide.

Hedges, Dr. Charles Cleveland, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College
Station, Texas. Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, alton, Ky. Sept. 22, 84. B.S., Kentucky,
06 ; A.B., Cornell, 08 ; Ph. D., 12 Asst, instr. chem. Cornell, 06-08, instr. 08-12 ; assoc, prof,
Agr. and Mechanical Col. Texas, 12-13, head dept chem and chem. eng, 13—, v. dean sch.
eng, 26 — Chem. Soc. Agricultural and inorganic chemistry ; elementary qualitative analysis ;
insecticides ; efficiency of engineering teachers.

Harper, Dean Henry Winston, 2216 Rio Grande St., Austin, Texas. Chemistry. Boon-
ville. Mo., Sept. 20, 59. Mount City Col. Boonville, 72-74 ; Ph. D.. Phila. Col. Pharmacy, 81 ;
M. D., Virginia, 92, 94 ; Europe, 97 ; LL.D., Baylor, 14 ; Mfg. chemist and perfumer. Ft.
Worth, Texas, 81-84 ; chemist and metallurgist, Colo, and Refugio Mining and Smelting
Co., 84-85 ; Compania La Imogena, 86 ; chemist and pathologist to Drs. Beall and Adams,
Ft. Worth, Texas, 87-90 ; adj. prof, chem, Texas, 94-97, assoc, prof, in charge sch. chem.
and director chem. lab. 97-03, prof, chem, 03 — , dean grad, sch., 13 — Chemist, Miner.
Surv. Texas, 01-06. 5th, 7th and 8th Int. Congs. Applied Chem. Naval consulting board,
south, div, S.A.T.C., 17-18. A. A ; Chem Soc ; Electrochem, Soc ; Soc. Chem. Indust ; Elec-
trochem. Soc ; fel. Inst. Chem ; Am Med Asn ; South Med. Asn ; fel. Texas Acad (pres, 00,
v. pres, 10); fel. London Chem. Soc; Soc. Chem. Indust. London. Pharmacology; geology;
pathology ; chemistry of fatigue ; chemistry of asphalt ; amethystine blue ; water analysis :
analysis of several artesian waters ; municipal water supply of El Paso, Texas ; the waxes
in the candalilla plant ; bituminous coal distillation ; hydrolysis of sawdust ; bromids and
iodids from deep wells of Texas ; chemistry of the pollen of the mountain cedar.

Hartsook, Prof. Arthur J., Rice Institute, Houston, Texas. Chemistry. Greenwood, Nebr.
Nov. 17, 91. A.B., Nebr. Wesleyan 11 ; B.S., Mass. Inst. Tech. 20, Monsanto fellow, 20-21,
M.S. 21. Instr and sch supt Nebr 12-18 ; instr indust, chem, Rice Inst. 21-28, asst. prof. chem.
eng. and in charge Dept, 28 — ■. Chem. Soc. (Pres, southeast Texas sect, 26 — ■, sec’y, 30 — )•
Industrial chemistry ; chemical engineering ; decomposition and products of natural gas.

Henze, Prof. Henry Rudolf, 309 Moore Blvd., Austin, Texas. Chemistry, New Haven,
Conn., Jan. 11, 96. Ph. B, Yale, 18, Nat. Aniline and Chem. Co. fellow, 20-21, Ph. D., 21.
Adj. prof. chem. col pharmacy, Texas, 21-22, assoc prof, 22-24, prof, 24-27, head dept,
21-27, prof, pharmaceut. chem, 27 — , chairman dept, chem, 29 — Junior chemist, U. S. Bur.
Mines and C.W.S., 18, major, C.W. Res. A. A. ; Chem. Soc. (pres. cent. Texas sect, 31, 32,
37, councilor, 32, 33) ; Pharmaceut. Asn; fel Inst. Chem; Texas Phamaceut Asn; fel. Texas
Acad. Pharmaceutical chemistry ; ingidoia dyes, hydantoins ; halogenated ethers ; calcula¬
tion of isomeric and stereomeric aliphatic compounds ; heterocyclic nitrogen compounds.

Heuse, Prof. Edward Otto, 3421 University Blvd., Dallas, Texas. Chemistry. Madison,
Ind., March, 79. B.S., Hanover Col, 00, hon. A.M., 06; M.S., Illinois, 07, fellow, 12-14,
Ph. D, 14. Asst. Chem, Illinois, 03-07 ; prof. Upper Oowa, 08-12 ; instr, Illinois, 14-15 ; prof.

16

Texas Journal of Science

Monmouth Col, 15-18 ; prof, and head dept. South. Methodist, 18 — Summer, Lewis Inst.
(Ill.), 07. A. A. ; Chem. Soc ; fel. Inst. Chem ; Texas Acad. Physical and Inorganic Chemistry.

Hogan, Prof. Francis Woodall, Texas Christian University, Ft. Worth, Texas. Chemistry.
Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 6, 87. B.S., Vanderbilt, 11, M.S., 12, 12-14; Chicago 24, 26. Instr.
Chem. Vanderbilt, 14-15 ; asst, prof., Ward-Belmont Sch, 15-20 ; prof. Texas Christian, 20 — ,
chairman div. nat. sciences and math. A. A. ; Chem. Soc. Closure for a carbon cylinder with
a method for spontaneous creation of pressure within the cylinder ; recovery of waste carbon
dioxide and waste heat from cement kilns ; hydrogen sulfide from natural gas.

Lake, Prof. William Wattes, College of Mines and Metallurgy, El Paso, Texas. Chem¬
istry. Ridgewood, Ohio, June 8, 91. B.S., Ohio State, 13, M'.S., 21 ; Ph. D. Chicago, 41.
Chemist, National Carbon Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 13 ; chief chemist, William Edwards Col,
14 ; instr., high school, Ohio, 14-17 ; Texas, 19-21, head science dept, El Paso Jr. Col.,
21-27, asst. prof. chem. Col. Mines and Metal, Texas, 27-35, assoc, prof. 35-40 ; prof, and
chairman dept., 40 — . 2nd lieut., Inf., 18-19. Chem. Soc. The synthesis of DL-threose.

Landolt, Dr. George Lifred, Austin College, Sherman, Texas. Chemistry. Somerville,
Texas, May 19, 02. A.B., Austin Col, 23, A.M., 26 ; Ph. D., Pittsburgh, 30. Instr. chem.
Austin Col, 24-26 ; Asst, Pittsburgh, 26-28 ; head dept, S. Park Junior Col, 28-31 ; Austin
Col, 31 — , Pres, Southwest, Sci. Supply So., Beaumont, Texas. Summer, lecturer, Austin
Col, 31. Preparation, manufacture and activity of organic flotation reagents.

Lochte, Prof. Harry Louis, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. Chemistry. Fredericks¬
burg, Texas, Oct. 18, 92. A.B., Texas, 18 ; fellow, Illinois, 21-22, Ph. D., 22. Teacher, high
chs, 11-16 ; asst, and tutor, Texas and Illinois, 16-22 ; instr. chem, Texas, 22-23, adj. prof,
23-26, assoc, prof, 26-36, prof, 36— Chem. Soc. Organic and analytical chemistry ; naph¬
thenic acids ; bomb methods of analysis for carbon ; corrosion of iron.

Wallet, Dr. John William, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. Chemistry, Dub¬
lin, Ireland. Oct. 10, 32. Ph. D., Gottingen, 52 ; A.B., Dublin, 53 ; M.D., Louisiana, 68 ;
LL.D., William and Mary and Mississippi, 72 ; Princeton, 9 ; Hopkins, 02 ; Pennsylvania,
06. Prof, chem, Alabama, 56-60 ; Med. Col. of Ala, 60-61 ; first lieut. and A.D.C., staff of
Gen. Rodes, C.S.A., 61-62 ; capt, maj, lieut. col. of artillery and supt. C. S Ordnance Labo¬
ratories, 62-65 ; prof chem, med dept, Louisiana, 65-68 ; Virginia, 68-83 ; prof. chem. and
chairman of the faculty, Texas, 83-84 ; prof, chem, Jefferson Med. Col, Phila, 84-85 ; Vir¬
ginia, 85-08, emer. prof. 08 — Judge, bur. awards, Centennial Expos, 76 ; lecturer, Hopkins,
77, 78 ; mem. U. S. Assay Commission, 86, 88, 96 ; ed, “Zeitschrift Anorg. Chem.” 92 —
F.A.A. ; Chem. Soc. (pres, 82); assoc, fel. Am. Acad; Philos. Soc; cor. mem. N. Y. Acad;
hon. men. Md. M’ed. and Chirug. Faculty ; hon. mem. Soc. Mex de Hist. Nat ; Soc. Cient.
Ant. Alz ; fel. Royal Soc; Fel. London Chem. Soc. (v. pres, 88-90). General and applied
chemistry and chemical mineralology ; atomic masses of lithium, aluminum and gold ; density
of solid mercury ; molecular weight of hydrofluoric acid ; methods for determination of
organic matter in potable water ; new meteorites ; occurrence of silver in volcanic ash
from South American volcanoes ; structure and absorption spectrum of gold leaf. d. 1912.

McAfee, Dr. Aimer McDuffie, P. O. Box 316, Port Arthur, Texas. Chemistry. Corsicana,
Texas, Sept. 24, 86. A.B., Texas, 08 ; fellow, Columbia, 10-11, Ph. D, 11. Tutor chem, Texas,
08-10 ; chemist, Texas Co, 11-13 ; chief research chemist. Gulf Ref. C’o, 13-23, supt. aluminum
chlorid dept, 23 — A. A. ; Chem. Soc ; Soc. Chem. Indust ; Chem. Eng. Petroleum oils ; man¬
ufacture of gasoline ; aluminum chlorid.

Olsen, Dean Julius, Simmons University, Abilene, Texas. Physics. Chicago, Ill., May 5,
73. B.S, Bethany (Kans.), 98, hon. Sc. D, 22; Ph. D, Yale, 02. Prof, physics, Simmons
(Texas), 02-03, dean dept, arts and sciences, 09-27. A. A. ; Physical Soc. Physical Chem.

Reid, Prof. E. Emmett, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Chemistry, Fincastle,
Va., June 27, 72. A.M., Richmond, 92, LL.D, 17; fellow, Hopkins, 97-98, Ph. D, 98. Prof,
chem, Col. of Charleston, 98-01; Baylor, 01-08; Carnegie asst, Hopkins, 08-09, Johnston
scholar, 09-11; research chemist, Colgate and Co, 11-14; assoc, prof, chem, Hopkins, 14-16,
prof. org. chem, 16-37, emer. prof, chem, 37 — Consultant, E. I. du Pont de Nemours and
Co, 19—; Hercules Powder Co, 26 — ; Thiokol Corp, 34 — ; Socony-Vacuum Oil, 37 — ; re¬
search adviser, Richmond, South Carolina, Emory, Furman, Birmingham-Southern Col.
and Howard Col. Summer, visiting prof, Chicago, 30. Consultant gas warfare, U. S. Bur.
Mines and War Dept, 18-19; consultant, C.W.S., Edgewood Arsenal, 20 — ; Chem. Soc.
(chairman, div. org. chem, 20, director, 34-37); Inst. Chem. Organic Chemistry; hydrolysis
and alcoholysis of acid amids ; the formation of nitriles ; organic sulfur compounds ; rela¬
tive solubilities ; organic catalysis ; identification of caids, alcohols and phenols ; anthra-
quinone thio-ethers ; influence of sulfur on the color of dyes ; ethylation of benzene ; de¬
rivatives of “mustard gas” ; high speed stirring ; isomers and series.

Reedy, Prof. John Henry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. Chemistry. Plano, Texas,
May 1, 79. A.B, A.M, Southwestern (Texas), 00; M.S., Chicago, 14; Ph. D, Yale, 15. Prof.

Anti-Freeze Compounds

17

chem, Southwestern (Texas), 05-13; South. Methodist, 15-18; asst. prof, and assoc, prof,
Illinois, 18 — ; Chem. Soc. ; Electrochem. Soc. Inorganic and analytical chemistry.

Schoch, Prof. Eugene Paul, 2212 Nueces St., Austin, Texas. Chemistry. Berlin, Ger¬
many, Oct. 16, 71. C.E, Texas, 94, A.M, 96 ; fellow, Chicago, 99-00, Ph. D, 02. Instr. chem,
Texas, 97-06, adj. prof, 06-11, prof, 11 — , director bur. indust, chem, 14 — ; Texas Acad,
(pres, 08). A.A. Chem. Soc.; Inst. Chem. Engrs. Physical and industrial chemistry; electro¬
motive force of nickel ; systematic electroanalysis ; water treating ; economic products from
polyhalite ; improving lignite as a fuel'; effect of electric discharge upon hydrocarbons.

Thornton, Marmaduke Knox, .Jr., Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College
Station, Texas. Chemical engineering. Helena, Ark., Feb. 8, 92. B.S., Miss. Agr. and Mech.
Col, 09 ; A.M, Columbia, 14. Chemist, Tenn. Coal, Iron and Ry. Co, Ala,, 09-11 ; instr. Agr.
and Mech. Col. Texas, 11-15 ; junior chemist, ordnance dept, Picatinny Arsenal, J. J., 15-18 ;
shift supervisor, Hercules Powder Co, 18-19 ; prof, indust. chem. Agr. and Mech. Col.
Texas, 19-35, leather specialist, exten. service, 36 — ; Chem. Soc. Explosives; fuels for in¬
ternal combustion engines ; lubricating oils ; lubrication of engines ; cottonseed oil mill¬
ing and refining ; paints ; timber preservation ; cottonseed products ; leather and leather
products.

Watts, Prof. Otto Olive, 1925 Simmons Ave., Abilene, Texas. Chemistry. Brentwood,
Ark., March 21, 93. A. B. Simmons Col. (Texas) 13, Rice Inst, 16; A.M, Colorado, 23;
Ph. D, Stanford, 32. Asst, and instr, Colorado, 22-24 ; prof. chem. and head dept, Simmons,

20- 22, 24-34, Hardin-Simmons, 34 — . Teaching fellow, Stanford, 30-32. Summers, acting
asst, prof, Stanford, 30-32 ; visiting prof. Col. Mines and Metal, Texas, 36, 37. Instr,
A. ELF. Univ. Beaune, 18. A.A. ; Chem. Soc ; Texas Acad. (v. pres, in charge, physical
sciences, 37) ; Texas Archeol. and Paleont. Soc. (sec’y, 29, 32-36). Thermometric titration
method; electrical conductivity; viscosity and plasticity in the mesomorphic state; lyotropic
properties of starch sols.

Whitman, Pr,of. James Laurence, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas.
Chemistry. Pendleton, Oregon, March 9, 92. A.B, Oregon, 14, M.S, 15 ; Ph. D., Iowa, 24.
Teacher, high sch, 15-19 ; head dept, chem, Spokane, 19-21 ; instr. anal, chem, Oregon,

21- 22, physical chem, Iowa, 24-28; prof. chem. and head dept, Texas Christian, 28 — ;
A.A. ; Chem. Soc. (sec’y) Iowa sect, 27, pres, 28, cent, Texas sect, 32 ; Texas Acad. Con¬
ductivity in mixed solvents ; electrometric determination of reducing sugars ; colloids ;
physical properties of binary liquid systems.

Weiser, Dean Harry Boyer, Rice Institute, Houston, Texas. Chemistry. Canal Win¬
chester, Ohio, Sept. 5, 87. A.B, Ohio State, 11, A.M, 12 ; Ph. D, Cornell, 14. Instr. chem,
Tennessee, 14-15; Rice Inst, 15-18, ast. prof, 18-19, prof, 19 — , dean, 33 — ; Chairman cmt.
on chem. of colloids, Nat. Research Council. Assoc, ed, “Jour. Physical Chem.” Capt,
C.W.S. A.A. ; Chem. Soc. (sec’y, div. inorg. and physical chem, 24, v. sec’y, 25, chairman,
26, chairman, colloid div.); fel. Inst. Chem; Eng. Educ ; Faraday Soc. Absorption; chemi¬
cal production of light ; the hydrous oxides ; physical character of precipitates ; theory
of dyeing and mordanting ; setting of hydraulic plasters ; stability of colloidal solution ;
permeability of membranes ; colloidal theory of gallstone formation ; constitution of gels
and sols from x-ray and electron diffraction studies ; mechanism of the electrolyte coagu-
Htion of sols.

ANTI FREEZE COMPOUNDS— DESIRABLE
CHARACTERISTICS AND PRESENT STATUS

MARSHALL BROWN
Supervising Laboratory Engineer
Texas Highway Department

SYNOPSIS

Present shortage of satisfactory anti-freeze compounds and reap¬
pearance of inferior and injurious materials threaten to intensify motor
vehicle shortage by damage to radiators and motors.

Very simple tests for detecting inferior products are described and
desirable characteristics of anti-freeze compounds are listed and briefly
discussed.

18

Texas Journal of Science

The present anti-freeze situation appears to offer an excellent op¬
portunity to see if the old platitudes concerning burned children avoid¬
ing the fire and experience being the best teacher apply to the American
public.

In 1942 the damage to motor vehicles by deleterious anti-freeze
compounds was so extensive that the temporary effect on the war effort
was serious. Measures taken to remedy the situation were, to say the
least, lenient and, in some ways, inconsistent and ineffective. After
much damage was done, the War Production Board prohibited the manu¬
facture, but not the sale, of saline and petroleum base anti-freezes but
later reversed itself to the extent of lifting the ban on some petroleum
base compounds while the assignment of ceiling prices to the deleterious
materials by O.P.A. was apparently interpreted by many as official
certification of quality. Promotional schemes took full advantage of
previous advertising that had fixed the mind of the public on the value
of a “permanent” anti-freeze and “guaranteed permanent” (which they
were) labels were commonly used. In some cases trade names of estab¬
lished reputations were closely imitated. Quite a few commercial labo¬
ratories and some consultants loaned the advertising a cloak of “scien¬
tific” approval by issuing letters and reports, mainly confined to listing
the ingredients found, freezing points of various water-compound blends,
and general statements such as that the “compound in question com¬
pared favorably with other solutions used in corrosion tests” without
saying what the other solutions were. Many men with considerable
technical training and experience apparently lost sight of such simple
facts as, (a) despite recurring statements to the contrary, no inhibitor
has been successful in protecting the combination of metals to be found
in the cooling system of a car against the corrosive action of magnesium
or calcium chloride, (b) all inhibitors are gradually depleted by use,
and (c) short time corrosion tests based on visual appearance or loss
of weight are not reliable in evaluating anti-freeze, since most of the
damage done is due to “hidden” corrosion.

All of the conditions described have been given considerable pub¬
licity by newspapers, and such agencies as the American Automobile
Association, Better Business Bureaus, and Consumers Research, but once
more the substitute anti-freeze compounds are on the market and it will
be interesting to watch reaction of the consumer.

The requirements of an ideal anti-freeze compound have been
listed and discussed by several investigators. 1 These requirements are
essentially as follows:

1. Ability to lower freezing point of water sufficiently to provide
adequate protection at lowest winter temperatures.

2. Lack of any tendency to corrode any metal parts of the radiator
or motor or to soften or deteriorate rubber connections.

3. Adequate supply at reasonable price.

4. High resistance to decomposition at operating temperatures.

5. Low viscosity at all operating temperatures, high specific heat
and high heat conductivity of water solutions.

1 Anti-Freeze Compounds, Keyes, I, and E. Chem. 0’27. Properties Vs. Performance of
Present-Day Anti-Freeze Solutions, Green, Lamprey, and Sommer, Journal of Chemical
Education.

Anti-Freeze Compounds

19

6. Should have no tendency to foam nor to produce unpleasant
odors or produce undue fire hazard and vapors should be non-toxic.

7. It should not attack automobile finishes and should maintain
its anti-freeze property over a long period, of time.

8. It should not appreciably alter the boiling point of water.

The “tried and true” anti-freeze compounds are methanol, ethanol,
and ethylene glycol,2 the last named being known as the “permanent”
type because little of it is lost by boiling away in service.

Ethylene glycol is the basic ingredient of many dependable products
sold under various trade names being originally utilized in Prestone.
Compounds based on ethylene glycol have the fact plainly stated on the
label along with full directions in regard to methods of use to obtain
best results. Considerable basic research 2 has been done to improve
anti-freezes by imparting such properties as anti-foaming, anti-air en¬
training, lack of tendency to “creep” or cause leaks, etc. The shortage
of ethylene glycol, which originated early during the war and still
exists, gave rise to the vigorous promotion of saline solutions and petrol¬
eum products as “permanent” anti-freeze compounds.

The methanol and ethanol products provide adequate protection
against freezing and meet the anti-corrosive requirements but have
certain minor disadvantages chief of which is loss by evaporation,
surging, etc., which place these products in the “nonpermanent” class.
They are not recommended for use in high altitudes. They will damage
car finishes and some objection, particularly to methanol, has been
raised concerning the toxic nature of the fumes. However, the last
named objection hardly seems justified in view of the long service
record without any deleterious effects, at least in this area, being
reported.

As in the case of ethylene glycol, the methanol and ethanol products
are sc Id under various trade names with the basic ingredient being
plainly listed on the label along with specific instructions and precau¬
tions regarding use. Considerable quantities are also sold in bulk. Al¬
though not available in unlimited quantities, the methanol and ethanol
shortage has never been as acute as the shortage of ethylene glycol.

SALINE SOLUTIONS

Solutions of salts, chiefly calcium chloride and sometimes mag¬
nesium chloride, have constituted the bulk of the substitute anti-freezes.
They satisfy two of the major requirements for an anti-freeze namely,
adequate freezing point lowering and adequate supply at reasonable
cost. In fact their price and availability made them a “natural” as
substitutes. They are indeed “permanent” which was another “natural”
to associate them with the long established advertising regarding quality
and price of ethylene glycol base products. However, the corrosive
effects of these materials overbalance by far any of their durable prop¬
erties.

Although these materials are seldom labeled in regard to content,
they can easily be detected by very simple tests, namely, gallon weight
determination and simple evaporation.

2 For those interested in detailed information on these materials, “Properties Vs. Perform¬
ance of Present Day Anti-Freeze Solutions,” by Green, Lamprey, and Sommer, Journal

of Chemical Education is recommended reading.

20

Texas Journal of Science

The saline solutions weigh from 10.1 to 11.5 lbs. per gallon while
the ethylene glycol products weigh about 9.4 lbs. per gallon and the
methanol and ethanol products weigh from 6.75 to 7 lbs. per gallon.

The evaporation test on saline solutions is generally a little startling
to “unsuspecting victims.” These materials are generally sold in practi¬
cally saturated solutions.

Petroleum Products

Practically all of the petroleum product anti-freezes are essentially
“deodorized” kercsense. Although their unit weight is about the same
as that of the methanol and ethanol products they are easily identified
by their oily, sticky, feel, and characteristic odor, in spite of the deodor¬
izing treatment, and boiling range, which is very high in comparison to
the alcohols, and by the fact that directions call for their being used un¬
diluted.

High boiling point, and deleterious effect on rubber connections
are the chief disadvantages of petroleum product anti-freezes; and they
are not recommended, although they have no corrosive action compar¬
able to the saline solutions. At least one petroleum base product, labeled
as such, is being advertised on a national scale in popular magazines.

Other products such as honey, sugar, etc., have been tried as anti¬
freeze substitutes but price and availability apparently kept them off
the market during recent years. They are unsatisfactory and easily de¬
tected by their well known characteristics.

RANGE OF CALOPOGON PULCHELLUS IN TEXAS

WILLIAM D. LEWIS AND JAMES L. LIVERMAN
A. & M. College of Texas
(Collegiate Section)

Calopogon pulchellus, commonly known as “Grass Pink,” is a
terrestrial orchid with showy flowers varying in color from pure white
to deep crimson. The inflorescence is a terminal raceme borne on a
scape 1-13.5 dm tall with a single fully developed leaf sheathing the
stem near the base (Fig. 1).

This past spring the writers discovered Calopogon pulchellus (1947)
four miles south-southwest of Wellborn in Brazos County, Texas, thus
advancing the reported range of this species several miles to the south¬
west. The exceptionally damp, warm conditions of late spring must
have been very favorable for Calopogon for about the time the authors
made their find, Mr. H. B. Parks, Curator of S. M. Tracy Herbarium of
the A. & M. College of Texas, discovered this same species in another
area 2% miles southwest of Wellborn and about four miles from the
above location. The plants continued to bloom periodically for 10 to 15
days after their first discovery. The former known range in Texas as
reported by Correll (1944) included Lamar, Leon, Anderson, Hardin,
Harris, Houston, Jasper, Jefferson, Polk, Smith and San Augustine
Counties (Fig. 2). Not included in Correll’ s; publication are two more
range extensions — one found by Barkley (1943) near New Baden in

Range of Colopogon pulchellus

21

Robertson County and one reported by Whitehouse (1940) from
Nacogdoches County.

FIG. i

Photo of Colopogon pulchellus

(Collections determined as this species
by C. V. Morton of the U. S. National
Herbarium have been made in both the
Ch'isos and Davis Mountains of western
Texas and published in check lists by Dr.
Omer E. Sperry. The western Texas
plants have since been worked by Dr.
Correll for his monograph on the Orchi-
daceae and published in The Flora of
Texas. The name Hexalectris warnockii
has been given the above collections by
Ames and Correll).

In addition to being found in the post
oak and low pinelands of East Texas,
Calopogcn occurs freely in sphagnum
bogs, depressions in prairies and savan¬
nahs, in meadows and on sandy pine
and oak ridges from Newfoundland and
Eastern Canada south through the east¬
ern states to Florida. From Florida it
ranges along the Gulf Coast to Texas,
north through Oklahoma, Missouri and
Iowa, and west through the lake states
to Minnesota. It has also been reported
from the Bahama Islands.

Carlson, (1943) working with this spe¬
cies, has made a study of the develop¬
mental anatomy and morphology extend¬
ing over a period of two years of cultiva¬
tion on artificial media. A brief resume
of her findings will be of interest. The
following, unless otherwise stated, has
been extracted from her report.

The plant arises from a minute seed
which averages .68 mm in length and .20
mm in width. It consists of a transparent,
loose fitting seed coat and an ellipsoidal
embryo, which consists of a mass of un¬
differentiated parechymatous cells with
none of the usually well defined parts of
an embryo. All food is stored in the
form of oil which is converted- to starch
and sugars when germination begins.

The seed germinates, splitting the seed
coat, and the basal end enlarges greatly
while at the same time the upper part
divides producing a typical promeristem

22

Texas Journal of Science

(Carlson, 1943). Epidermal cells elongate to form absorbing organs re¬
sembling root hairs and a cone-shaped bud develops from the promeri-
stem. Shortly after formation of the bud, the tubular primordia of the
first and second leaves arise and enclose it, and they in turn are fol¬
lowed by formation of the third and fourth leaves each pushing through
an opening in the end of the preceding leaf and becoming slightly longer
than its predecessor.

The first root of the seedling may arise from a group of parenchy¬
matous cells in the outer cortex of the upper part of the corm; or, as is
often the case, this root fails to develop at all. In this instance, a pri-
mordium may arise in the bud between the first and second leaves and
emerge by digestion of the stem epidermis and some of the leaf cells.
In some cases, no root at all develops and absorption is then accom¬
plished entirely by means of the epidermis and absorbing hairs.

By mid-season of the first year, the young plant consists of the
protocorm with absorbing hairs, the shoot with four concentric leaves
and usually with an adventitious root.

During the latter part of this first season the meristematic tip of
the stem stops growing, and a second corm begins to form by elongation
and enlargement of the parenchymatous cells of the two upper inter¬
nodes of the stem. The first internode may elongate to form a stalk of
variable length between the protocorm and the new corm. It may be of
interest to state here that the authors found such a structure existing
on one of the plants they collected.

This second corm soon becomes much larger due to the transfer of
reserve food from the protocorm and the manufacture of food by the
leaves and by the corm itself since its outer layers contain chlorplasts.
As the corm continues to develop, a new bud develops under the epi¬
dermis and soon lays down primordia of four new leaves. These soon
elongate above the surface and remain until winter approaches when
they dry up, leaving only their sheaths which cover the dormant corm
with its buds and leaf primordia for the next season.

The second year is a repetition of the last part of the first growing
season except that the plant becomes larger and the fourth leaf fails to
elongate, making the third leaf the predominant one. A third corm is
formed which is larger than either of the previous two but no inflores¬
cence is produced. The advent of winter sees the leaves wither again,
leaving only the third corm with its dormant bud.

Carlson studied older plants collected from the field and concluded
that this same process is repeated year after year with an increase in
the size of the corm and the number of adventitious roots until both
internal and external conditions favor flowering. At this time a single
leaf and the scape, which is to bear 6 to 12 beautiful flowers varying
from white to deep crimson, appears above the ground. Just how many
years are required for the complete cycle has not yet been ascertained.
Thus it becomes more apparent why this species may be found only on
very rare occasions.

Be this as it may, the fact remains that “Grass Pink” has been dis¬
covered farther west than has been reported before, and with a group of

Range of Colopogon pulchellus

23

Anderson Co., E. D. Schulz s.n.; Brazos Co., J. L. Liverman and Wm.

D. Lewis 87; Hardin Co., G. C. Nealley s.n., O. Sanders and R. Sanders
s.n.; Harris Co., F. J. Lindheimer 88, F. W. Thurow s.n.; Houston Co.,

E. J. Palmer 12070, B. C. Tharp 768; Jasper Co., H. B. Parks and V. L.
Cory 22186; Jefferson Co., Mrs. J. L. Hooks s.n., Mrs. S. R. Smith; Lamar
Co., E. McMullen s.n.; Leon Co., C. L. Lundell and A. A. Lundell 10338;
Nacogdoches Co., Whitehouse 11173; Polk Co., B. C. Tharp s.n.; San
Augustine Co., Mrs. W. D. Lynch s.n.; Smith Co., J. Reverchon 2239,
2795; Walker Co., S. R. Warner 113, M. S. Young s.n.

24

Texas Journal of Science

wide awake collectors in the field, it is expected that Calopogon
pulchellus will be discovered to range in nearly all of the counties of
East Texas.

Literature Cited

Carlson, Margery C. — 1943 — Morphology and anatomy of Calopogon

pulchellus. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 70:349-368.

Correll, Donovan S.— 1944 — Orchidaceae. Flora of Texas 3(3).

HUMAN CONSERVATION:

HUMAN GENETICS, EUGENIC AND DYSGENIC PRACTICES

C. P. OLIVER, Councillor,

University of Texas, Austin

Human genetics is cne of the most misunderstood sciences. Everyone
believes that he knows what is best for himself. He has his own theories
about heredity in the human and about the relative importance of hered¬
ity and environment in affecting human characteristics. There may be
no scientific support for his theories, but it is difficult to shake him
from his beliefs.

Erroneous ideas about human heredity are often expressed. One such
belief which is relatively common is that nothing can be done to pre¬
vent a trait with a hereditary basis from occurring. A member of a fam¬
ily having a diseased condition which is manifested only in rrrddle or
late adult life may believe throughout his life that he will develop this
trait. A geneticist may be able to study the family and show that the
person most probably will not develop that defect. Many individuals
believe that genetics is synonymous with eugenics. The two sciences
are related only in that eugenics attempts to apply the knowledge gained
in the study of genetics.

Because of the many misunderstandings about heredity, the human
race has blundered along with little attempt to control the appearance
of its defective conditions. Little thought has been given to the children
of the future. Society should begin to think more about these children.

A program developed to prevent the production of defective children
will be more likely to succeed if accurate data about heredity and envi¬
ronmental factors affecting our characteristics are collected and analyzed.
New methods for the study of human genetics are now available, and
newer methods must be discovered. Some persons can be told that they
cannot transmit a trait. Yet too many normal individuals are carriers
of a defective trait which they can transmit to their children, and with
our present knowledge we are unable to warn them of that fact. These
are the ones who suffer most from the production of children with
anomalies. Methods of helping these carriers recognize that they have
the potentiality should be developed.

As a means to correct erroneous beliefs about heredity and also
to place human genetics on a firmer basis, a definite program should
be established. The study will require the cooperation of all persons, in¬
terested in the problems. It should be organized on a permanent basis
because the study must begin with living individuals who have the

Human Conservation

25

traits to be studied and should continue for a time in order that the
data about the relatives can be checked and completed. In such a study
cases which occur sporadically are as important as those which occur
in several members of a given family. The program will take a consid¬
erable time, more than many will want to give, but the end results will
be valuable to all of us. The program will progress slowly at first and
then will grow rapidly.

PURPOSE

The program to be suggested will have two main purposes. One
will be to benefit the living individual. We should help him under¬
stand his own genetic problems and make it possible for him to get the
most benefit frcm his genetic constitution by taking advantage of all
new knowledge. The other purpose for the study will be to help the
children of the future. They have a right to expect the best biological
opportunity possible. In modern society these children face a severe
competition and should not have to start life under handicaps which
make it impossible for them to live a useful life.

Program: The program which is suggested will establish a Center to
stimulate and coordinate the study of human genetics. The Center will
function:

1. In collecting and keeping files on good and bad hereditary traits,
in analyzing the data collected, and in studying the effects of
the traits on the population.

2. As an office where people may consult with trained personnel
about personal genetic problems confronting them.

3. As a source of information to be used in educating people as to
the true interpretations of heredity and the application of the
knowledge of heredity to mankind.

4. In making a quantitative study of the population of Texas.

Collection of Records: In collecting and filing information about heredi¬
tary traits, the Center will use the data already available in the litera¬
ture. These records will be evaluated with respect to each character¬
istic, and the information will be kept on file for use by persons who
have a genuine interest in the material.

Original information about families having hereditary or probably
hereditary traits also will be collected. Original studies will be made
about traits occurring in individual families who from one source or
another come to the attention of the Center. However, some specific
research projects covering certain conditions, such as mongolism, will
be organized. The study of twins will be made.

All data are to be filed so that new information about the family
can be added as it becomes available. All such data will be checked
for accuracy and completeness. The records must be kept in strictest
confidence and used only for research purposes. As a matter of expedi¬
ency, the traits first to be considered will be those which are undesir¬
able. However, the program will be broadened to include normal traits,
non-pathologic variations, special abilities, longevity, and metabolic
defects.

26

Texas Journal of Science

An, important part of the study will be the collection of data to be
used in linkage analyses. Some families who seek information about a
hereditary anomaly in the family will be asked to give other personal
facts about their non-abnormal traits. Tests will be made to discover
whether any of these have a tendency to be inherited with the anomaly.
The benefit of such a study is obvious. Once a linkage relationship has
been established, congenital traits may be used in predicting with
greater accuracy that an anomaly occurring late in life, such as ataxia
or chorea, is likely later to occur in a given individual of the family.

Data collected by the Center will be analyzed to determine the
mechanism of inheritance of a specific trait in each family. Comparisons
will be made with the recognized method of inheritance in other fam¬
ilies having a similar condition. Variability in manifestation and the
cause of such varied expression of the trait are important. This varia¬
bility may often result from an environmental agent. The study must
therefore attempt to gather data about the environmental conditions
under which the trait developed and an analysis of the probable effects
must be made.

CONSULTATION SERVICE

Persons will be informed that they may bring their genetic prob¬
lems or fears to the Center for interpretations. All consultations will
be kept in strict confidence.

This consultation service is one means of practicing eugenics. It is
often possible after studying a complete genetic history of the family
for one to advise with considerable accuracy the probability that an
individual will develop a trait present in his relatives. He may also be
advised that he will transmit a gene for the trait to his children or that
certain marriages will increase the probability that he will produce such
a child. On the other hand, one may be able to state definitely that a
given member of a family will not have the familial trait and can not
pass it on to his child.

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM

The Center will attempt to bring to the attention of the public the
present knowledge we have about human genetics. It will stress the
possible use that can be made of such knowledge. For example, one
can often use a family history to determine how severe some defects
will be in a member of the family. By calling a person’s attention to
the probable inheritance of a condition, one may help the individual
recognize an early manifestation of a non-congenital trait so that he
can be treated before it is too late, sometimes helping to preserve life.
Differences in accomplishment by. members of a family can sometimes
be understood as a hereditary variant. Certainly ., this - will be helpful
to a child who cannot fill a family occupation of his father or older
brother.

The educational program will be carried on by the consultation
service and by other means. The Center will publish and distribute
non-technical pamphlets which explain heredity and ‘discuss- -the- prob¬
lems which may arise in families having certain genetic conditions.

Human Conservation

27

A series of talks and discussions will be established and made avail¬
able to small and large groups who have an interest in genetics. These
discussions will be given by various persons who understand human
genetics and should be modified when necessary to fit the needs of
special groups of listeners. A means of working with young people and
of interesting them in their own hereditary histories should be devel¬
oped. Probably a good beginning will be to establish cooperation with
science clubs and similar groups.

A wider application of heredity will be possible if an attempt is
made to interest so-called minority groups in the program. This may
serve as a means to- correct some of the present misunderstandings.

POPULATION ANALYSIS

A quantitative analysis of the population is essential. This will in¬
volve studies to determine which traits have severe effects upon our
population. Not only must we determine the traits, but we must discover
the actual causes of the defects. In retarded children, for example,
several casual factors may be active. In some, mental incapacity may
be due to metabolic defects, glandular defects or other hereditary
factors. Other children may have certain physical defects which are
responsible for the lack of proper mental attainment, such as heredi¬
tary optic atrophy, other unrecognized vision defects, or difficulty
in hearing which may or may not be hereditary. In still other children,
the seemingly slow mental development may have an economic cause,
such as frequent changes in schools or low finances and a resulting
poor health. We need to know how many retarded children fall into
each category.

The population analysis should also include the study of relative
rates cf reproduction of the various hereditary types and their possible
effects upon the future population. Methods of control which have been
practiced by other groups and other parts of our own society should be
evaluated. Some cf the laws made to control defectives have been based
upon misunderstandings of the laws of heredity. One state, for example,
has a law prohibiting marriage between cousins, but by law it permits
the superintendent of certain state institutions to act as a justice to
perform the marriage ceremony for persons in these institutions. In our
study, it will be necessary to determine what can be done to help the
children, but bad laws are worse than no laws.

CONCLUSION

Any program in the study of human conservation will succeed
only if we have the cooperation of other people who are interested
in the project. This can best be gained by establishing a Center which
will collect enough data about human genetics to show what is taking
place and then analyze the data to show what the future will probably
be. Once the data are available people will awaken to the need to apply
the knowledge properly and intelligently in attacking the problems of
society.

28

Texas Journal of Science

SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF MIGRATORY LABOR IN TEXAS

DANIEL RUSSELL
Department of Agricultural Economics
A. & M. College of Texas

A few days ago I was talking to a group of my Texas A. & M. stu¬
dents through the women’s penitentiary at Huntsville. The young men
were especially attracted by the young convict girl that met us at the
front door. She was an attractive, willowy, erect young brunette about
20 years old. She was a young girl that might have passed easily at any
of the college dances. Naturally, we did not ask any questions of
her, but later the boys interrogated the warden and his wife. We
were told that although the girl was a beautiful girl, she could neither
read nor write, and that she had been a member of a farm migratory
labor family driving over Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, and
other states following the seasonal demand for this kind of labor. She
had no' opportunity of an education, no opportunity of any normal life
other girls enjoy as she, I am sure, would have liked to have.

A few years ago I heard Mrs. Stevens, the superintendent of the
Texas Girls Reformatory at Gainesville, say before a public meeting
that 75 percent of the girls at Gainesville reformatory at that time
were from these migratory families, driving up and down the highways
of this and other states. That life is especially difficult for young women.
They want to have dates, go to parties and dances like other girls. They
might get dates but seldom, if ever, with the best boys in the commun¬
ity and with boys with the best intentions.

A roving life is not a natural, healthy social life, especially where
people do not, as our nomads used to do, carry around with them the
rest of their community, their community controls and their community
institutions, Man obeys many of the natural laws of the rest of life
round about us. Man suffers sometimes more by making this life un¬
natural than do animals or plants. It is not best to change the habitat
of an animal frequently each month. We know the handicap of digging
plants up and transplanting them from one area to another area several
times each year. People have roots in communities and in social struc¬
tures and in social institutions in the local community. To tear out these
roots and let the people shift and drift around is an unhealthy social
situation. So unhealthy, in fact, that I do not think this conference or
any of the other conferences we hold can solve or nulify these problems.

Still, migratory labor is a natural result of our changing agricultural,
social and economic order. We have migratory labor to meet an economic
demand of a new order of life. We cannot change this demand. There¬
fore, we cannot change this situation. We need to discuss our problems,
however, to understand, and to improve our rather unwholesome and
unhealthy condition as much as possible. This is a sick spot in our society
that we cannot cure, but we ought to try to relieve it. Some men do
full days’ work when the doctor has told them they will never be real
well again. We must have something like that in the problem we dis¬
cussed today.

Let us list briefly some of our major social problems caused by
migratory labor.

Corrosion in Hot Water Systems

29

( 1 ) We break the solidity of the community in which migrant work¬
ers drift and destroy the common consensus that one time existed in
these communities. (2) We hurt the community institutions, especially
the school, the church, and home, in these communities where we do
not have a permanent population. (3) Controls of the local community
most often fail to function in the lives of the migrant worker because
he is not a part of the local community. (4) We tend to develop mis¬
understanding, prejudice, and friction between two groups which, if they
are not different, they think they are different — which amounts to the
same thing in the long run. (5) We fail to give a satisfying home life
to the migratory wmrker and the members of his family, the kind of life
we feel necessary for the development of the full, round, human per¬
sonality. (6) We deny additional opportunities to the children of the
migrant farm workers’ family. (7) We deny proper religious and moral
development to the worker and his family. (8) We create health hazards,
first to the migratory worker and second, to the persons in the com¬
munity where the worker goes. Conditions under which the migratory
worker lives are not, as a rule, healthy and sanitary; moving around in
a truck over the country is not a healthy situation. Persons visiting
many places and areas have greater opportunity to contact and spread
infectious diseases. (9) Housing has been, and is, a major problem of
migratory workers despite what Mr. Hohn and his fine co-workers in
the Extension Service have done to improve the housing facilities for
them. This study reminds me of the story of the family of 13 migratory
workers living in a one room shack, sleeping on cotton in the middle of
the floor and cooking and eating in the great out-of-doors. This may be
a marginal case but such conditions occur all too often. (10) We have
known for a long time that mobility makes for social disorganization,
crime, and delinquency. I think much credit is due to the migratory
workers that the crime and delinquency rate is not higher than it is,
but it is too high just the same. (11) A person who drifts around a lot
does not have permanent moorings, may be an easy prey to the isms
and off -brand political and religious doctrines contacted, and such a
life does not tend to develop the strong, sturdy citizenship, qualities we
expect an American citizen to develop, whether he be farmer, laborer,
professional man or, if you please, a migratory worker.

Mr | Chairman, I am afraid I have just opened up some of the prob¬
lems that should be discussed, with no attempt to solve them.

CORROSION IN HOT WATER SYSTEMS

A. H. ULLRICH, Supt.

Water and Sewage Treatment
Austin, Texas

A complete study of corrosion in hot water systems presupposes a
knowledge of the general characteristics of metals and the effect of
water on them. It is, therefore, helpful to remember that few metals
except the noble ones, such as gold, are commonly found in the metallic
state in nature. From this we may reason that the less noble metals,
such as iron, are not stable in their metallic state when exposed to the
forces of nature. These metals are normally found in some stage of

30

Texas Journal of Science

oxidation as an oxide, carbonate, sulphide or similar stable combination
which we refer to as an ore. In general, metals which can only be pro¬
duced by the reduction of ores will revert to more stable forms similar
to the original ores from which they came unless they are protected
from the forces of nature.

In order to determine how to protect metals from natural corrosion
it is essential that we learn what forces of nature are destructive. A
number of theories on corrosion have been proposed but in recent years
we have pretty generally come to accept the electro-chemical theory
as best explaining what actually happens. This theory is based on the
fact that all metals have a tendency to dissolve in water, even though
the extent of such solution may be very small. The extent of solution is
actually governed by the degree of the tendency to displace hydrogen
in water, which may be measured in electrical terms as voltage and is a
characteristic of the metal. Thus metallic potassium exerts a very high
tendency or voltage, iron exerts a medium tendency or voltage and
platinum exerts a very low tendency or voltage. The tendency of other
metals to go into solution; that is, their solution pressure is intermediate
between that of potassium and platinum.

The solution pressure of potassium is so great that when metallic
potassium is brought into contact with water, hydrogen is displaced
with great violence. The potassium is, therefore, very quickly dis¬
solved or “corroded” to the more stable potassium hydroxide. The
solution pressure of metallic iron is less than that of potassium and
when metallic iron is brought into contact with water only a limited
amount of hydrogen is displaced, except in quite acid solutions as we
will note later. The hydrogen displaced adheres to the surface of the
iron and both insulates it and exerts a counter solution pressure which
has a tendency to prevent additional iron from dissolving. In order
for corrosion to continue further, there must be a process of removing
the hydrogen. In water containing dissolved oxygen this hydrogen film
may be removed by the reaction with oxygen, thus continuing the cor¬
rosion process as long as a continuous supply of dissolved oxygen
reaches the iron surface or the replaced hydrogen.

If the products of corrosion; iron hydroxide, iron oxide, etc., in the
case of iron, were impervious to and excluded any further dissolved
oxygen from reaching the iron then corrosion would cease after an
adequate film of rust had formed. Since iron rust is not impervious,
the corrosion of iron continues. On the other hand, while both zinc and
aluminum have higher solution tendencies than iron, they have a ten¬
dency to protect themselves by forming very nearly impervious hydrox¬
ides and oxides as well as by exerting a high tendency to hold the
hydrogen and preventing it from being oxidized. For this reason both
zinc and aluminum are very resistant to corrosion in what we term
neutral water. Of course, if the water is either acid or very alkaline
the zinc or aluminum hydroxides become soluble and the metal corrodes
at an increased rate.

While different metals have varying tendencies to go into solution
this tendency of each metal also varies with the type of water brought
into contact with it. As stated above, in order for the metal to go into
solution it must displace hydrogen or its equivalent and any hydrogen

Corrosion in Hot Water Systems

31

displaced must come from that part of the water which is ionized.
Therefore, if we have a high hydrogen ion concentration (low pH or
acid water) the hydrogen is more easily displaced and we may except
rapid corrosion. Conversely, if we have a low hydrogen ion concentra¬
tion (high pH or alkaline water) the hydrogen is less easily displaced
and we may expect less rapid corrosion. From this we might reason
that all we have to do to stop corrosion of iron is to increase the pH or
render the water sufficiently alkaline. This we cannot do, however, be¬
cause the resulting water would not be potable. Since we must stay
below a truly protective pH we are limited further by the possible de¬
structive action of excessive pH values on some of our present accepted
protective coatings and linings.

As previously mentioned, dissolved oxygen in water plays a major
role in the corrosion of metals in that it reacts with and removes the
protective hydrogen film formed during the first stage of corrosion.
It may then be reasoned that the higher the dissolved oxygen concen¬
tration, the more rapid the reaction with hydrogen and the more rapid
the corrosion. It is also reasonable to suppose that there may be mini¬
mum dissolved oxygen concentrations below which corrosion is not
unduly aggressive. In studies made on Dallas, Texas, water, Billings
has reported that when the dissolved oxygen concentration dropped to
or below 7.9 parts per million it was not noticeably aggressive. In
studies made on the very soft, low mineral content Fort Smith, Arkan¬
sas, water, the author found that when the dissolved oxygen concentra¬
tion dropped to or below 6.5 parts per million it was not noticeably ag¬
gressive. Exact concentrations where definite corrosion rates are en¬
countered are, of course, difficult to determine and, no doubt, change
with different types of water.

While reaction with dissolved oxygen is accepted to be the most
important way in which the hydrogen film formed in the first step of
corrosion of iron is removed this hydrogen may also be removed by a
sweeping action such as is obtained in rapidly moving water and by
the application of excessive heat. It is also possible that we have over¬
looked the importance of other oxidizing agents such as high chlorine
residuals on the hydrogen film.

Thus far we have considered corrosion only as applied in the case
where one metal is in contact with water. Where two or more metals
having different solution tendencies are in contact with each other
and with water we have the more destructive case commonly called
galvanic action. Thus if zinc and iron are in contact with water the
zinc is destroyed in preference to the iron. However, if we have copper
and iron in contact with each other and both in contact with water, the
iron is destroyed in preference to the copper. Similarly, if we have iron
in contact with a solution of copper such as copper sulphate, the iron
will go into solution, replacing the copper which is plated out. Perhaps
a better example of this action is the plating out of metallic silver on
a copper penny when the latter is submersed in a solution of silver
nitrate.

Galvanic corrosion may also be caused by having low potential in¬
soluble metallic salts in contact with high potential metals and water.
In a recent corrosion study made for the Arkansas Tuberculosis Sana-

32

Texas Journal of Science

torium the author found that excessive pitting in copper hot water pipe
was caused by galvanic action between small deposits (specks) of man¬
ganese dioxide and the copper. This case involved all of the hot water
piping in one one million dollar building unit and in several smaller
units, all constructed in 1939. The corrosion was so severe as to cause
numerous failures through pitting by late 1946.

Impure metals in contact with water may also be a source of gal¬
vanic corrosion. Thus if two metals of different potentials are in a
mixture rather than in solution with each other; that is, if they are not
in true alloy, the high potential metal is likely to corrode at an ex¬
cessive rate.

Still other causes of corrosion include the type obtained when an
external electric current is permitted to pass through a system where
a metal or metals are in contact with water or a solution. This is known
as electrolysis and involves the same general principles as electro¬
plating. Obviously the degree of destruction encountered in this type of
corrosion depends on the volume of current passed and this in turn
depends on the source of the current and on the resistance which the
system exerts. It is generally believed that alternating current does not
cause electrolytic corrosion and that direct current is necessary. How¬
ever, the grounding of any electric appliance to water piping has come
in for a great deal of discussion. It is believed that appliances which
have condensers or converters may pass enough direct current on to
the ground to cause troublesome red water even if the corrosion is not
pronounced enough to cause rapid pipe failure.

In the discussion to this point we have considered the corrosion of
all metals. Since in water supply our chief interest is in iron, we shall
limit further discussion as much as possible to the corrosion of this
metal. We may then list the following facts concerning the corrosion of
iron:

1. At atmospheric temperatures, iron will not corrode in the ab¬
sence of water or moisture. Therefore, if we can provide a coating or
lining which will prevent water from reaching the iron surface we can
definitely protect iron. Linings which have been used with some success
include zinc (galvanizing), bitumastic enamels, cement, paints, and
glass. Coatings or linings formed by chemical reaction within the water
which have been used include calcium carbonate, silicates and phos¬
phates. More will be said about coatings and linings later.

2. All waters have a tendency to corrode iron. This tendency is
greatest in acid or low pH waters and lowest in alkaline or high pH
waters. In the treatment of potable waters the pH cannot ordinarily
be increased sufficiently to give adequate protection by this method
alone.

3. Free carbon dioxide and other acids increase corrosion both by
increasing the corroding tendency of iron and by dissolving protective
coatings.

4. Very high pH or alkaline waters reduce the corroding tendency
but if the pH is excessive it may be destructive to protective coatings
such as galvanizing and thereby actually increase corrosion in such
systems.

5. Dissolved oxygen or other oxidizing agents must be present in

Corrosion in Hot Water Systems

33

any except acid waters to support continuing corrosion. Also, the rate
of corrosion depends on the oxygen concentration and on the rate at
which it is replenished. In acid waters the hydrogen film previously
mentioned may be removed by direct action.

6. Dissimilar metals in contact with each other and with water
will cause corrosion by galvanic action. Thus brass or copper in contact
with iron will cause the iron to corrode. Even two different types of
iron in contact with each other may cause galvanic action.

7. Direct electric current passing from iron into water and out
again will cause the iron to corrode.

8. High temperatures will increase the rate of corrosion.

9. High water velocities tend to increase corrosion by sweeping
away the hydrogen film and by increasing the supply of dissolved
oxygen reaching the surface of the iron.

10. The solution or corroding tendency of iron may be neutralized
by application of a counter acting voltage. This is accomplished in prac¬
tice by the use of cathodic protection. Cathodic protection may involve
either the use of a counter direct current or an expendable metallic
anode.

11. It is thought by many that high sulphate and possibly high
chloride concentrations cause higher corrosion rates.

12. There has been a general opinion that soft waters are more
corrosive than hard waters. It is possible that high calcium and high
carbonate concentrations tend to produce complex iron salts with cor¬
rosion products to form better protective coatings than do the less
complex iron oxides.

This brings us to the question of corrosion in hot water systems.
This question has become of intense interest in some areas in recent
years because of unprecedented failures of domestic hot water heaters
of the galvanized tank type. Usually a sharp increase in such failures
has been noted after a change from a hard or relatively hard to a soft
water supply has been made or after the complete softening of a water
supply has been undertaken. In our haste to explain this phenomenon
we might be led to assume that a soft water is intrinsically more cor¬
rosive than a hard water. Where a complete change in water supply
has been made it is possible that the new supply does not have more
corrosive tendencies than the old supply but when the only change has
been intensive softening, then it is apparent that this should not be
the chief and only factor.

During the years that the author was associated with the Fort
Smith, Arkansas, Water Department, he had an excellent opportunity
to observe the results of a change in water supplies. The original supply
was normally relatively soft, but for frequent short periods it did carry
considerable calcium bicarbonate hardness. With this supply there was
sufficient carbonate scale formation in storage tank type hot water
heaters to give adequate protection against corrosion. In 1936 Fort Smith
changed to a very soft lake water supply and within two years after
the change there were complaints of new galvanized tank hot water
heater failures. As one of the leading local wholesale plumbing firms
exhibited considerable interest, we collaborated on an investigation of
one of their better heaters of reputable make. We selected a galvanized

34

Texas Journal of Science

tank type heater which had been in service just long enough to cause
some complaint from red water and which had been placed in service
some time after the change to the very soft water supply. This tank
was removed from service, taken to the firm’s shop, and cut into upper
and lower halves. Inspection of the inside surfaces revealed numerous
spots where the galvanizing had disappeared completely and where
instead there was rusting and pitting. The galvanizing which remained
seemed to be considerably thinner than the original coat was assumed
to have been. There was no scale or other deposit except the rust on
the exposed spots. Further inspection revealed that the heater contained
a tin down pipe in contact with the galvanized iron of the top of the
heater and a brass thermostat in contact with the side of the heater
shell. This heater had iron, zinc, tin and brass all in electrical contact
with each other and when in operation, with water. To check our sus¬
picion that, through galvanic action, the tin and brass was removing
the zinc galvanizing and then destroying the iron, we suspended the
tin down pipe in one half of the tank filled with water and measured
the current which flowed between it and the tank shell. This was some
six milli amperes. In like manner, we measured the current flowing
between the brass thermostat and the heater shell and obtained similar
results. With this destruction active continuously twenty-four hours
each day, there was small wonder that the heater was giving red water
complaints.

From studies made on the two Fort Smith supplies, the Arkansas
Tuberculosis Sanatorium supply and from studies as reported in the
literature by others, the author has drawn the following conclusions
regarding corrosion in hot water systems:

1. That the ordinary galvanized tank hot water heater with brass,
tin or copper down pipe and brass thermostat will destroy itself through
galvanic action if used with soft, non-scale forming water.

2. That for a galvanized tank hot water heater of this type to
give reasonably satisfactory service it must be used with a water hav¬
ing sufficient carbonate or temporary hardness to form a protective
scale, with a water which is purposely treated to form a protective
coating on all interior parts of the heater or with a water low in dis¬
solved oxygen.

3. That treating a low calcium and low carbonate water to calcium
carbonate stability with lime is not sufficient to form a protective coat¬
ing in hot water heaters and piping. If calcium carbonate stability can
only be reached by treating to a high pH then there is not sufficient
calcium carbonate present to form an adequate coating.

4. That the excess lime treatment in lime softening, if not care¬
fully controlled, may be detrimental to galvanized hot water tanks.
It is likely that if the water is treated to a very high pH and the high
pH is maintained in the finished water, the calcium carbonate solubility
is depressed below the point where it can form an adequate protective
coating.

5. That waters which have sufficient calcium bicarbonate hard¬
ness form adequate protective coatings through their deposition of scale.

6. That with very soft waters, excessive pH values are harmful.
With Fort Smith water a pH of 8.8 was found to soften galvanizing.
Higher pH values were found to remove it and expose the iron.

Groundwater Conservation in Texas

35

7. That excessive temperatures will cause rapid corrosion.

8. That deaeration or oxygen removal will aid in reducing cor¬
rosion both in hot and cold water systems. This has been practiced in
boiler plants and other industrial installations. It has not been practical
to deaerate or practice oxygen removal in treating municipal supplies.

9. That silicate treatments when properly supervised may form
adequate protective coatings to reduce corrosion.

10. That copper coil instantaneous heaters and copper lined and
monel metal tank heaters are successful with soft, non-scale forming
waters. Recent reports on glass lined tank heaters have also been en¬
couraging.

11. That low dosages of sodium hexametaphosphate (1.0 ppm.
or less) will not protect hot water systems when used with a low cal¬
cium and low carbonate water. That dosages of 5.0 ppm. or more, may
give protection under these conditions.

12. That phosphates such as micromet will give protection when
used in the recommended dosages.

13. That the use of dissimilar metals should be discouraged, especi¬
ally in hot water systems using non-scale forming water.

In conclusion, I would like to emphasibe that each water is an
individual problem and its corroding tendency must be given individual
study. Because corrosion rates are often very slow, such studies may be
rather time consuming. However, to arrive at satisfactory solutions,
we must study the characteristics of each water as well as evaluate the
degree of protection we wish to accomplish.

PROPOSED GROUNDWATER CONSERVATION MEASURES

IN TEXAS

WILLIAM F. HUGHES *

Declines in groundwater levels that have resulted from expanded
agricultural, industrial, and municipal water uses in Texas have stimu¬
lated some interest and effort in promoting statutory regulation of
groundwater use. Texas is not alone in respect to groundwater prob¬
lems. Groundwater levels have declined, some of them excessively,
throughout most of the United States.

With the exception of a few western states, groundwater develop¬
ment in this nation has proceeded without legislative restraint. In some
states, however, utilization has been regulated somewhat by applica¬
tion of the American doctrine of reasonable use.

Efforts to rectify the situation in states where statutory controls
are not in effect have not been universally successful. The lack of suc¬
cess in several of these efforts is not unusual under the circumstances.
Once a state is committed to a policy of unrestricted use, it is exceed¬
ingly difficult to bring about the legislative action required to establish
adequate conservation measures.

* Agricultural Economist with the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. S. Department of
Agriculture. The opinions expressed are those of the author unless otherwise cited and are
pot necessarily those of the agency with which the author is associated.

3 6

Texas Journal of Science

Lack of Regulatory Features in Present Law

Texas has constitutional and statutory provision relating to the
appropriation and use of water flowing in natural watercourses, under¬
flow to these watercourses, and to artesian waters, but these provisions
do not apply to percolating waters. Inasmuch as the groundwaters with
which we are here concerned come within the classification of perco¬
lating waters, existing statutes need no further discussion here.

Groundwater development and use in Texas is not subject to stat¬
utory control. The few court decisions bearing on the subject hold that
percolating waters are the absolute property of the landowner. For a
time Texas courts were inclined to accept the American doctrine of
reasonable use,1 but a Texas Supreme Court decision handed down in
1904 established the English doctrine as the accepted law governing the
taking and use of groundwater. The provisions of the English common
law doctrine are stated in the following quotation:

“That the person who owns the surface may dig therein, and apply all that is there
found to his own purpose at his free will and pleasure ; and that if, in the exercise of
such right, he intercepts or drains off the water collected from the underground springs
in his neighbor’s well, this inconvenience to his neighbor falls within the description of
damnum absque injuria, which can not become the ground of an action.” (Quoting from
the English case of Action v. Blundell (12 M. & W. 324, 354), a decision rendered in
1843.)

At the time the original decision was rendered, 1843, knowledge of
the physical conditions governing the occurrence of groundwater, its
source, quantity, rate of movement, and destination was conjectural, or
at best was very meager. Perhaps the courts could not rule otherwise
when the subject in question was an unknown quantity, with neither
its source nor mode of occurrence known. This was true to a large ex¬
tent in 1904, when the Texas Supreme Court accepted the provisions
of the 1843 decision as being applicable to the problem under considera¬
tion. Considerable progress was made in. groundwater hydrology be¬
tween 1843 and 1904, but unfortunately many of the hydrologic prin¬
ciples that were brought to light were not well enough established to
influence the latter court’s decision.

Marked advances in groundwater hydrology have been made in
recent years. It is now possible to approximate, with a reasonable de¬
gree of accuracy, the limits of a particular underground water-bearing
formation, its storage capacity, its rate of replenishment, and its poten¬
tial yield. Lack of knowledge was probably sufficient justification for
the early decisions, but no such claims can be substantiated today.

A close study of the provisions of the English doctrine indicates
that groundwater development and use in Texas is proceeding under a
policy of every man for himself. It is also readily apparent that if car¬
ried to its logical conclusion this process can lead to only one end —
depletion of the existing water supplies.

Need for Conservation Measures

No vivid imagination is required to foresee the consequences of
unregulated use. This is particularly true in the field of irrigation.

1 The provisions of the Doctrine of reasonable use vary between the states in which it is
recognized. In general, however, this rule holds that each owner of land overlying a
basin has a right to the underground water co-equal and correlative with that of all
other owners of land overlying the same basin.

Groundwater Conservation in Texas

37

Remnants of irrigation facilities and foundations of houses that were
abandoned when the artesian pressure head dropped in the Roswell
Artesian Basin, show what can happen to an irrigated area when the
water supply is depleted. Other examples of the economic losses sus¬
tained when a water supply fails are found in the Winter Garden Area
of Texas, the Mimbres Valley of New Mexico, and in some of the inland
valleys of California where large sums have been expended in an effort
to replenish depleted groundwater supplies.

In the domain of municipal and industrial water uses the bare
possibility of a depleted or contaminated supply is loaded with far-
reaching economic implications — implications that are of prime concern
to tax-conscious city officials and industrially-minded chambers of
commerce alike. Cities, unlike individuals or irrigation districts that
have scant financial resources, can usually take advantage of surface
storage to offset the effects of a depleted water supply. Such a shift,
however, usually requires rather heavy capital expenditures. Even in
those cases where a municipality can take advantage of minimum
storage costs through public water control or conservation construc¬
tions, transportation and increased facilities for treatment are still
expensive. If a municipality must bear the full expense of storage con¬
struction, the cost is often prohibitive. In addition, the quality of the
water obtained, even with increased treatment, is often lower than that
of groundwater. Moreover, the supply is not always dependable. For
those cities that are not in a position to take advantage of surface
storage, any curtailment or impairment of their water supply would
effectively limit their further expansion and, in extreme circumstances,
might conceivably force a reduction in current activities.

Interested individuals began agitating for statutory control of
groundwater use as long as 15 years ago, but these efforts were not
widely supported. Later efforts, despite increased interest in the subject
have fared no better. Diverging opinions and the conflict of interests
among various agricultural, municipal and industrial water users have
stifled all attempts to establish the required legislation.

Despite the wide range of interests encompassed by the opposition
forces, one phrase in the enabling clause of the proposed legislation
has served to unite them in a common effort. The enabling clause, de¬
claring the waters of underground streams, channels, artesian basins,
reservoirs, or lakes having reasonably ascertainable boundaries to be
the property of the state and to be subject to appropriation for certain
uses, if enacted into law would abrogate the now accepted English doc¬
trine and make groundwater use more or less subject to the existing
appropriation stautes. Regulation in any form is, naturally, objection¬
able to the groups whose activities might be hampered, while some
people who might not object to the regulation of groundwater use in
general are strongly opposed to the idea of state ownership of water
in their own area.

According to Hutchins (1942), “The principle of ownership of percolating waters by
the owner of the overlying land, either absolutely or subject to reasonable use, has been
so thoroughly grounded in American jurisprudence as to make introduction of the appro¬
priation doctrine a difficult matter ... In line with this, uses have become vested upon
the basis of court decisions recognizing ownership by the landowner, after which any

38

Texas Journal of Science

declaration of public ownership and appropriability immediately raises constitutional
questions.”

Counsel for the proponents of groundwater conservation hold that
Section 59a, Art. XVI of the Texas Constitution provides ample consti¬
tutional leeway for the enactment of such legislation as may be required
for the proper conservation of groundwater resources. The controver¬
sial oil and gas proration statutes of Texas were enacted under the
provisions of this Section and proponents of statutory regulation of
groundwater use consider that it provides a mandate for the enactment
of the desired measures. Sections 59a, b, and c, Art. XVI of the State
Constitution, which contain the provisions under which the proposed
conservation measures would be enacted, are reproduced below.

“Sec. 59a. The conservation and development of all the natural resources of this State,
including the control, storing, preservation and distribution of its storm and flood
waters, and waters of its rivers and streams, for irrigation, power and all other useful
purposes, the reclamation and irrigation of its arid, and other, lands needing irrigation,
the reclamation and drainage of its overflowed lands, and other lands needing drainage,
the conservation and development of its forests, water and hydroelectric power, the
navigation of its inland and coastal waters, and the preservation and conservation of
all such natural resources of the State are each and all hereby declred public rights and
duties ; and the Legislature shall pass all such laws as may be appropriate thereto.

“(b) There may be created within the State of Texas, or the State may be divided
into, such number of conservation and reclamation districts as may be determined to
be essential to the accomplishment of the purposes of this amendment to the constitu¬
tion which districts shall be governmental agencies and bodies politic and corporate
with powers of government and with the authority to exercise such rights, privileges
and functions concerning the subject matter of this amendment as may be conferred
by law.

“(c) The Legislature shall authorize all such indebtedness as may be necessary to
provide all improvements and maintenance thereof requisite to the achievement of the
purposes of this amendment, and all such indebtedness may be evidenced by bonds of
such conservation and reclamation districts, to be issued under such regulations as may
be prescribed by law and shall also, authorize the levy and collection within such dis¬
tricts of all such taxes, equitably distributed, as may be necessary for the payment of
the interest and the creation of a sinking fund for the payment of such bonds ; and
also for the maintenance of such districts and improvements, and such indebtedness
shall be a lien upon the property assessed for the payment thereof ; provided the Legis¬
lature shall not authorize the issuance of any bonds or provide for any indebtedness
against any reclamation district unless such proposition shall first be submitted to the
qualified property-tax-paying voters of such district and the proposition adopted. (Sec.
59, Art. 16, adopted election Aug. 21, 1917 ; proclamation October 2, 1917.)”

Provisions of the Proposed Conservation Measures

Legislation to effect the required changes in the State Water Code
was introduced in the Legislature during the regular sessions of 1937,
1939, 1941, and 1947. All these proposals met with such vigorous oppo¬
sition that none of them received Committee approval. The provisions
in these proposed measures are similar, in most respects, and adhere
closely to those of the suggested “Uniform Underground Water Law for
Western States” which was prepared by a committee of the Association
of Western State Engineers in 1935.

In the discussion that follows, the main provisions of the various
proposed conservation measures are outlined and some of their more
salient features along with certain points of issue are discussed.

1. Each proposal sought to abrogate the now accepted common
law doctrine and replace it with the Doctrine of Appropriation. Use

Groundwater Conservation in Texas

39

would be regulated by the granting of a permit to appropriate a given
quantity of water from a known source for a definite purpose.

2. The provisions in the proposed measures would be applicable
to all water uses throughout the State. The manner in which regulatory
measures would become effective, however, differ somewhat between
the various proposals. In the 1937 and 1939 proposals the regulatory
features would become effective only if people in a particular area
wanted them, and took the required steps. Under the 1941 and 1947
proposals the regulatory features would have become effective through¬
out the state with the enactment of the proposed legislation.

The local option approach would provide the means whereby the
majority of the people in any particular area could invoke the regula¬
tions to conserve their water supply. The actual conservation of ground-
water resources, however, stands a much better chance of being achieved
under the more flexible method of application embodied in the state¬
wide approach than it does under the local option approach. Regulation
on a local option basis would be as effective as statewide regulation
only if its application could be as timely. Inertia or delay on the part
of local people in instituting the regulatory measures, or the conflict
of interests that such a move would bring to light, could easily delay
action until irreparable damage is inflicted. On the other hand, if
groundwater use is subject to appropriation at all times, the regulatory
agency can step in and stop or restrict development in any particular
area when it becomes evident that further development will be detri¬
mental to existing appropriated rights.

3. Constitutional authority for the enactment of the proposed
conservation measure is presumed to be carried in Section 59a, b, and c,
Art. XVI, the previously cited “conservation section,” of the State Con¬
stitution.

4. Two different legal concepts of the authority for enforcing
groundwater use regulations, enacted under the provisions of Sec. 59,
Art. XVI, of the State Constitution, are expressed in the proposed
measures. In the 1939 and 1941 proposals, regulations would have been
enforced through the exercise of the police power without taking title
to the underground water resources. Although this approach has some
undesirable features from an administrative standpoint, as will be
presently noted, it is generally conceded to be constitutional. The au¬
thority of the State to impose restrictions on the taking and use of
minerals under similar circumstances has been established in court
tests of the controversial oil and gas proration statutes. On the other
hand, serious doubts have been raised regarding the constitutionality of
the approach suggested in the 1937 and 1947 measures. In these meas¬
ures control would have been exercised through the State taking title
to the underground water resources, subject to appropriation and use
by individual appropriators.

The state’s authority to take title to the underground water re¬
sources is not specifically provided for in the appropriation statutes and
therein lies the reason for doubting the constitutionality of the 1937 and
1947 approach. In this connection the appropriation statute provides:

“The waters of the ordinary flow and underflow and tides of every flowing river or
natural stream, of all lakes, bays or arms of the Gulf of Mexico, and the storm, flood

40

Texas Journal of Science

or rain waters of every river or natural stream, canyon, ravine, depression or water¬
shed, within the State of Texas, are hereby declared to be the property of the State,
and the right to use thereof may be acquired by appropriation in the manner and for
the uses and purposes hereinafter provided, and may be taken or diverted from its
natural channel for any of the purposes expressed in this chapter.*** (Vernon’s Texas
Statutes. 1936, Revised Civil Statutes, Art. 7467.)

It will be noted that in the drafting of the appropriation statutes
the framers thereof did not include percolating waters. Inasmuch as
the use of percolating waters was subject to the common law doctrine
at the time these statutes were drafted, it has been held that this omis¬
sion constitutes a specific exemption of these waters from the provisions
of the appropriation statutes.

From the standpoint of the administrator, the exercise of control
through the state taking title to the underground water resources is
preferable to the exercise of control through the police power alone.
Dedication of the underground water resources to the public provides
the legal foundation for their appropriation and use under the regula¬
tions and conditions prescribed by the state. Without this dedication,
the authority of the state to prescribe and impose regulations would
be subject to challenge each time a regulation is imposed, and the en¬
suing litigation could well defeat the purpose of the conservation move¬
ment. Regulation of groundwater use would be a new undertaking and
in the absence of previous court decisions bearing on the subject the
decisions of the courts probably would be dictated by the particular
circumstances surrounding the issue being contested. This process could
easily lead to a situation fraught with administrative difficulties and
uncertainties for both the administrator and the individual appropri-
ator. With some regulations effective throughout the state and others
effective only in particular areas or at particular times, and all subject
to possible change with each later court decision, an orderly and effi¬
cient administration of the regulatory program would be exceedingly
difficult. The individual appropriator, although he may have established
his right over that of others in one court, might be forced to resort to
litigation each time his right was challenged or impaired.

5. For all practical purposes the State Board of Water Engineers
would administer the proposed conservation program. In the 1937 and
1939 proposed measures, with their local option provision, the regulatory
program would have been administered through a District Board of
Directors. All regulations and control measures imposed by these
boards, however, would be subject to the approval of the State Board
of Water Engineers, The State Board also would have had the power to
require District boundaries to conform to the area it deemed necessary
to conserve the groundwater resources of the District and in adjacent
areas as well. In the 1941 and 1947 proposals, the State Board of Water
Engineers would have been charged with the supervision of the pro¬
gram. They would also have been responsible for the determination
of all procedures incident to the administration of the program that
were not definitely outlined In the proposed enactment.

Hutchins states (op. cit.) in his discussion, in 1942, regarding a cen¬
tralized system of public control over water rights:

“ . . . while the system as a whole has not been applied as completely in some juris¬
dictions as in others, and has not met with uniform success in all places, it is un¬
deniable that a long period of time has shown that centralized control over water-right

Groundwater Conservation in Texas

41

functions is workable. The system is generally conceded in the West to have been of
marked public benefit. None of the states which have imposed public control have
receded from the principles, excepting in those instances in which specific functions
have been rendered inoperative as the result of unfavorable court decisions. The general
principle is now well established in most of the western states, for it is widely realized
that the foundation of the system is the vital interest of the state in its water
resources.”

Advantages of placing the administration and supervision of a regu¬
latory program under a centralized agency are many. Uniform regula¬
tions can be prescribed and administered in a manner which will avoid
much of the dissension that probably would arise around the issue of
bias, should the administration of the program be placed in local hands.
Moreover, the State Board of Water Engineers has all the data per¬
taining to existing conditions in a groundwater area and is the only
agency that is in a position to determine when the water supply of an
area is fully developed. Obviously, this is a determination that cannot
be left to the individual or corporation with vested interests. Ground-
water investigations are long-drawn-out and expensive undertakings
that require the services of technical investigators for at least a short
period each year. The central agency that has several simultaneous in¬
vestigations can employ the services of this personnel and interpret the
results of their findings much more efficiently and in a more orderly
way than would be possible under an autonomous locally administered
program. Furthermore, groundwater conditions in one area may be
closely allied with or may be influenced to some extent by those in
adjacent areas. The central agency is the only organization that is in a
position to give adequate unbiased consideration to these relationships.

6. Beneficial use was the basis and the limit to the right to use of
the waters described in the proposed measures.

7. Existing water rights based on application to a beneficial use
were recognized and procedures for establishing their priority were
provided.

8. The granting of a permit to appropriate water for beneficial
uses was mandatory, provided (a) that the applicant had complied with
all the prescribed regulations, (b) that unappropriated water was avail¬
able, and (c) that the proposed development would not be detrimental
to existing rights, or not inconsistent with the general public welfare.

9. Between appropriators, the first in time is the first in right, and
all permits would be granted subject to the right of municipalities to
make further appropriations of water from the same source for domestic
and municipal use as their needs arise.

This latter provision is in keeping with existing statutes relating to
priority of water use. It is also a point of issue between agricultural,
municipal, and industrial water users. There is no argument regarding
the propriety of assigning the highest priority of water use to the sus¬
taining of life, but the inclusion of undefined municipal use is another
matter. Agricultural water users take the position that water used by
an industry is industrial water use irrespective of the fact that it may
have been provided by a municipality. Existing statutes do not define
the limits to municipal water use and the fact that certain cities are
providing industrial concerns with water obtained under a municipal

42

Texas Journal of Science

appropriation makes agricultural water users all the more apprehensive
of extending this unqualified provision to groundwater use also;

10. Administrative control over groundwater use is contingent on
authority to reject applications or to prorate use once a permit is issued.
In all the proposed measures, the administrative agency is specifically
directed to deny all applications when there is no unappropriated water
in the source that the applicant proposes to tap; or if the proposed use
would impair existing water rights or is detrimental to the public wel¬
fare. Provisions; for the proration of use, once a permit is. granted, are
not specifically provided for in any of the measures. This might be
implied, however, in the language of the proposed measures in which
the administrative agency is directed to formulate the rules and regula¬
tions necessary to carry out the provisions of the proposed legislation.

1. The common law features of existing groundwater law are re¬
tained insofar as domestic, stock and home garden use is concerned. The
use of water for these purposes is specifically exempted from the ap¬
propriation statutes.

12. Any willful diversion and use of groundwater for any of the
purposes named, without first complying with all the provisions of the
proposed legislation, would be deemed a misdemeanor. Conviction would
carry a fine, not to exceed one hundred dollars, or imprisonment in the
county jail, for a term not to exceed six months, or both a fine and
imprisonment. Each day that the regulations are violated would consti¬
tute a separate offense. Possession of the water obtained under these
circumstances would be considered prima facie proof of the guilt of the
party or parties concerned.

13. A definition of what constitutes waste is carried in each of the
measures. Provisions for punishing those guilty of causing, suffering
or permitting waste are also provided. In the 1937 proposal, use in excess
of the normal recharge is considered a waste, but this consideration is
not carried in later measures. In them, waste is defined to conform to
the ordinary meaning of waste and is declared to be a public nuisance.

14. Similar provisions for the forfeiture of a right through non-use
over a definite period of time are carried in all four measures.

15. The provisions of the proposed measure did not, in any case,
contemplate the repeal of any Act of the Legislature concerning the
conservation, protection, preservation, and distribution of underground
water. Each would have constituted an addition to the statutes already
in effect. Herein lies another point of issue between agricultural and
industrial water users. Enactment of the proposed measures would make
groundwater uses subject to the same priorities that govern surface
water uses. The statutes relating to the priority of use in the appropria¬
tion of water, as will be noted in the quotation which follows, are much
better adapted to humid and sub-humid areas than they are to more
arid areas where agricultural uses are generally given preference over
all but life sustaining water uses. Texas law regarding priority in ap¬
propriating water is as follows:

"... In the conservation and utilization of water declared the property of the
State, the public welfare requires not only the recognition of uses beneficial to the
public well being, but requires as a constructive public policy, a declaration of priori¬
ties in the allotment and appropriation thereof ; and it is hereby declared to be the

Groundwater Conservation in Texas

43

public policy of the State and essential to the public welfare and for the benefit of the
people that in the allotment and appropriation of the waters defined in Article 7467,
of revised Civil Statutes of Texas of 1925, preference and priority be given to the
following uses in the order named, to-wit :

1. Domestic and municipal uses, including water for sustaining human life and
the life of domestic animals.

2. Water to be used in processes designed to convert materials of a lower order
of value into form having greater usability and commercial value, and to
include water necessary for the development of electric power by means
other than hydro-electric.

3. Irrigation.

4. Mining and recovery of minerals.

5. Hydro-electric power.

6. Navigation.

7. Recreation and pleasure.”

(Article 7471, Revised Civil Statutes, Page 1370)

In this priority of use it will be noted that, without exception, in¬
dustrial uses are accorded a higher priority than agricultural uses. This
particular priority of use is in direct contrast to the priority that obtains
in States where irrigation is practiced to any great extent and it is one
of the reasons for a large part of the opposition by agricultural inter¬
ests. A possible method of curing some of this opposition lies in a re¬
vision of existing priority statutes, wherein agricultural uses would be
given preference in those areas or sections of the State where such uses
are clearly paramount. This approach has proved applicable in other
states where the range in climate is similar to that in Texas.

Some of the provisions of the earlier conservation measures were
undoubtedly designed to provide only the maximum degree of conser¬
vation that the proponents considered possible to enact over the objec¬
tions of the opposition. In the 1947 proposed measure, however, no
retreat from the provisions generally conceded to be necessary to the
orderly and effective administration of a groundwater conservation
program is apparent. Included in this measure are the controversial
provisions that have served to defeat earlier proposals, namely: State¬
wide application of the appropriation principle to all beneficial water
uses, dedication of the underground water resources to the public, and
a centralized system of public control over groundwater uses with au¬
thority to deny applications.

Despite impressions that may have been imparted regarding the
general seriousness of declines in water levels, groundwater resources
are being seriously overdrawn in only a few areas of the state (Spence,
1947). In many localities, however, the current rate of use is greater than
the recharge, so water is being withdrawn from storage. Evidence of this
can be found in news releases regarding difficulties in municipal water
supplies and in cooperative reports issued by the U. S. Geological Survey
and the State Board of Water Engineers. An accelerated rate of use
under these conditions can easily lead to depletion. It seems highly
desirable, therefore, that conservation measures be taken before ir¬
reparable damage is done.

LITERATURE CITED

Hutchins, Wells A. — 1942 — Selected problems in the law of water rights in the West. Misc.
Pub. U. S. Dept. Agric. 418.

Spence, E. V. — 1947 — Conservation and development of Texas groundwater. An address de¬
livered before the Dallas Technical Club, February 11, 1947.

44

Texas Journal of Science

METHODS OF COOLING A SAE 1060 STEEL AND THEIR
EFFECTS ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE STEEL

L. R. BENSON
University of Texas

Carbon steel is essentially an alloy of iron and carbon. Carbon steel
also contains manganese, silicon, phosphorus and sulfur, but of these
elements, manganese is the only one whose percentage in carbon steel
may vary enough to have any appreciable effect on the physical prop¬
erties of the steel.

In an unhardened steel at room temper atture the carbon in the
steel is present as iron carbide, which is also called cementite. The iron
is present as; alpha iron which has a small amount of carbon, about
0.008% in solution and is called ferrite. In steel at room temperature,
the lattice structure is a body centered cubic system, and the ferrite
grains appear white under the microscope. Ferrite is a ductile material,
relatively soft, Brinell hardness of 50 to 95 and a tensile strength of
about 40,000 pounds per square inch. Cementite which has a chemical
formula of Fe3C is very hard and brittle. The amount of cementite in
the steel has an effect on the physical properties of the steel. Increas¬
ing the amount of cementite in steel will also increase the hardness and
the tensile strength of the steel.

The physical properties of a carbon steel are determined not merely
by the amount of cementite present, but more especially by the form
in which it is present in the steel and the manner in which it is dis¬
tributed in the steel.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss briefly the processes by
which we can control the form in which the cementite will be present
and the manner in which it will be distributed in the steel. We shall
try to limit our discussion to the processes of control as they apply to a
SAE 1060 steel.

At room temperature an unhardened SAE 1060 carbon steel will
have a microstructure consisting of free ferrite and pearlite. The pearl-
ite is a laminated structure consisting of alternate laminations of ferrite
and cementite. (Fig. 1) The free ferrite is the dark portion, which forms
the boundaries for the pearlite, the lighter portion. This photomicrograph
made with the electron microscope clearly shows the lamellar structure
of the pearlite.

We shall next note the changes that take place in the microstructure
of this steel; as it is slowly and uniformly heated. When the temperature
reaches 1333° F. it will remain at this temperature until all the pearlite
has been transformed into austenite. Austenite is defined as a solid
solution of cementite in gamma iron. The space lattice structure changes
from a body centered cubic to a face centered cubic. The cementite
which has an octahedron cell fits into the cubic cell of the gamma iron
in such a manner that the carbon atom occupies the center of the cube.
As soon as all the pearlite has transformed into austenite the tempera¬
ture will again continue to rise and the ferrite will transform into

Methods of Cooling SAE 1060 Steel 45

FIG. 1. PEARLITE

austenite. Thus the transformation of the ferrite and pearlite into
austenite will be completed at the upper critical temperature of about
1380° F.)

This solid solution, austenite in the form of homogenous grains is
the microstructure from which by controlling cooling and by moderate
reheating we can create the microstructure that will give us any desired
combinations of physical properties within the natural limits of the
steel involved.

In order that we may visualize more clearly the various cooling
rates that are commercially applied to steel, let us become acquainted
with another diagram, called the S-curve diagram or the Transforma¬
tion-Time-Temperature (TTT) diagram.

This isothermal transformation diagram of a steel may be regarded
as a kind of map or working drawing, which enables us to visualize
approximately how the steel will respond to any mode of cooling from
the austenitic state.

At this point it is essential that we have in mind two very impor¬
tant facts. First. — That if a steel in the austenitic state is held at a
constant temperature lower than the minimum at which its austenite
is truly stable, it will in time transform. Second. — That once a trans¬
formation product is formed from austenite at some given temperature
this new structure will not, upon further cooling, change into the
transformation product characteristic of the lower temperature.

As stated earlier in this paper we shall limit our discussion to the
transformations that result from applying various cooling rates to a
SAE 1060 carbon steel.

46

Texas Journal of Science

Let us first consider the transformation which results when cool¬
ing the steel in the furnace in which it was heated to the austenitic
condition. As the temperature drops from Acl (138CL F.) to Ac3
(1333° F) ferrite crystals begin to form in the boundaries of the aus¬
tenite grains. When the temperature reaches 1333° F it will remain
constant until all the remaining austenite transforms into pearlite.
This pearlite is a corase lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite.
This process of transformation is called nucleation and grain growth,
and proceeds by the appearance of centers or nuclei of centers which
develop until they abut. The result is some form of ferrite and cementite
aggregate. In this process called full annealing the result is grains of
coarse pearlite bounded by free ferrite.

A similar microstructure may be had by quenching the austenized
steel in a salt bath of a temperature of 1325° F. and holding it at this
temperature until the austenite has completely transformed into free
ferrite and coarse pearlite. This process of cooling is called isothermal
annealing. Although the microstructure produced by these two pro¬
cesses of cooling may appear almost identical under the microscope,
the second process generally produces the most uniform structure in a
shorter time.

Let us consider next the type of microstructure which is produced
when we cool the austenized steel in still air. This process is called nor¬
malizing. Since this cooling rate is much faster than cooling in the fur¬
nace, less ferrite will have time to form as the temperature drops from
1380° F to 1333° F at which temperature pearlite will form. The rate
of nucleation of the pearlite due to transformation at a lower tempera¬
ture will increase greatly so that the pearlite in this process will have
much fine laminations. Since pearlite is nearly three times as strong as
ferrite and fine pearlite is stronger than coarse pearlite we will have
the normalized steel stronger and harder than a full annealed or
isothermal annealed steel.

Annealed SAE 1060 steel — Brinell 187 — Tensile strength 95,000 psi.
Normalized SAE 1060 — Brinell 229 — Tensile strength 107,000 psi.

Another process of cooling is to quench the austenized steel in
a salt bath of a temperature of 600° F and hold it at this temperature
until all the austenite has transformed. If the quench is rapid enough
so that the steel gets by the knee of the curve without any transforma¬
tion taking place, the result is an unstable supersaturated austenite
which transforms into acicular ferrite in which cementite is precipi¬
tated. This structure is called bainite and again the transformation is
the result of nucleation and grain growth. We may then define bainite
as a structure consisting of acicular grains of ferrite in which submi-
croscopic globular particles of cementite have been precipitated. This
type of cooling is called austempering; it produces a steel much harder
and stronger than the steel produced by any of the three methods pre¬
viously mentioned. This increase of hardness and strength is gotten
without surrendering too much of that important property, ductility or
toughness.

Austempered SAE 1060. — Brinell 388 — Tensile strength 225,000 psi.

In each of these processes of cooling, the transformation of the

Methods of Cooling SAE 1060 Steel

47

austenite is the result of nucleation and grain growth, but yet each
process produces its own type of microstructure. Professor Albert M.
Portevin explains the difference in microstructure in this manner. He
says that there are too factors that control the kinetics of transforma¬
tion. First, the rate of germination or nucleation, that is the number of
nuclei which appear in unit time in unit volume of austenite. Second,
the rate of growth or the linear rate of propagation of the products of
decomposition. To these we would like to add a third factor, namely,
that at temperatures above 1100° F cementite controls the nucleation
and at temperatures below 1100° F the ferrite controls the nucleation.

Cementite controls the nucleation of pearlite. The coarse pearlite
is the result of a slow rate of nucleation and a high rate of grain growth,
while fine pearlite is the result of a high rate of nucleation and slow
rate of grain growth.

Ferrite controls the nucleation of bainite. The formation of acicular
ferrite may be due to stresses created by a lower temperature quench,
but the fine globular cementite is due to rapid nucleation.

The transformation of austenite, whether to pearlite or bainite, is
dependent upon both time and temperature.

Another process of cooling called hardening of steel is the result
of quenching the austenized steel in cold water. An examination of this
structure under the microscope (500x or more) will reveal a needle¬
like acicular structure. This structure etches very lightly so therefore
we feel that only one phase is present in the structure. It is the hardest
structure that is possible from the transformation of austenite. This
structure is called martensite.

Our knowledge of martensite is still meager. However, there is
general agreement among metallurgists on the following conclusions.
The transformation of austenite to martensite differs from the process
of nucleation and grain growth. The transformation is without diffusion
of the elements and involves no change in chemical composition. Lattice
constant measurements indicate that martensite has the same composi¬
tion as the parent solid solution, austenite. There is no nucleation and
grain growth. Rather small discrete volumes of the parent solid solu¬
tion suddenly change crystal structure. These martensitic crystals have
a typical acicular microstructure in plane section. The lower the tem¬
perature of formation the more perfect is the acicular microstructure.
The transformation is the result of homogeneous shear and each plate¬
like volume is a single crystal of martensite. The transformation pro¬
gresses only while the steel is cooling and will cease if the tempera¬
ture drop is interrupted. Thus we see that the transformation is inde¬
pendent of time and dependent for its progress only on the tempera¬
ture drop. Martensite transformations have been shown to be reversible
in some metals but it is irreversible in carbon steels. Martensite has
been defined as a metastable interstitial solid solution of carbon cement¬
ite in teragonal iron (very close to a cubic lattice.)

Whether or not martensite is stable is not of too much concern,
as the structure is too brittle to have much commercial value. To alter
the microstructure of the hardened steel, it is only necessary to reheat
it. This process is called drawing the temper or, more briefly, drawing
or tempering.

48 Texas Journal of Science

FIG. 2. STEEL TEMPERED TO 750° F

It is possible to get the desired combinations of physical properties
in a steel that will make it suitable for the job that is required of it
by reheating the hardened steel to some definite temperature. The
hardened steel will continue to increase in hardness as the temperature
rises to 200° F, but as the temperature continues to rise above 200° F
the hardness and the tensile strength will decrease and the toughness
will increase.

Although we can definitely determine the physical properties of a
tempered steel we are far from certain as to what changes take place
in the microstructure of the steel in tempering it. We feel quite cer¬
tain that as the temperature rises to 200° F the tetragonal space lattice
changes to a body centered space lattice. It is possible that the body
centered space lattice can not hold as much cementite in solution as
the tetragonal space lattice without setting up more stresses in the
steel. These increased stresses possibly account for the slight increase
in hardness as the steel is tempered to 200° F.

As the temperature rises above 200° F the ferrite and the cementite
will separate. Microphotographs taken with the electron microscope of
a steel tempered to 750° F. seem to indicate that the cementite separates
out as a plate-like structure. (See Fig. 2) This micrograph shows the
plate-like structure and also small spherical particles that have broken
away from the plate-like cementite. A photomicrograph (See Fig. 3)

Methods of Cooling SAE 1060 Steel 49

FIG. 3. STEEL TEMPERED TO 1250° F

taken of the same steel but tempered to 1250° F. shows that the entire
plate-like structure has broken up into spherical particles. This is called
spheriodized steel. This spheriodized steel has a hardness just above
that of a full annealed steel.

Spheriodized steel. — Brinell 207 — Tensile strength 100,000 psi.

In our use of the electron microscope we were not able to get
microphotographs of martensite. The reason may be that martensite is
so uniformly hard that it etches very lightly so that a replica of the
surface of the steel did not have a varied enough surface to show any
contrast. To get a microphotograph of steel with the electron microscope
it is necessary to transfer a replica of the surface of the steel to a film
of some colloidal substance not over 10 millimicrons in thickness. This
is extremely hard to do, hence many hours of work trying to get
replicas of a hardened and tempered steel resulted in very few good
photomicrographs.

Whenever we master the art of getting good replicas of the surface
of a steel we shall know more about the structural form of the cementite
in steel and more about the manner in which it is distributed in the
steel. With this information we shall learn new ways in which we can
control the microstructure of a steel and then we can produce a steel
with any desired combinations of the physical properties within the
natural limits of the steel involved.

50

Texas Journal of Science

RADIO SOUNDING OF THE ATMOSPHERE

ROY E. WILSON
Abilene Christian College
(Collegiate Section)

Great strides have been made in recent years in sounding the at¬
mosphere, mainly since 1930. Prior to that time various procedures
were tried in seeking an accurate and practical way to get measure¬
ments of temperature, relative humidity, pressure, wind direction, and
wind velocity in the atmosphere.

Among these procedures were the use of kites, airplanes, and man-
controlled balloons to carry the necessary measuring instruments aloft
to make the measurements. All of these procedures succeeded in vary¬
ing degrees, but with all there were severe limitations. In the use of
kites, the altitude was very limited. Airplanes were often unable to take
off or fly at times when the data were critically needed. This was es¬
pecially true during severe frontal activity. And, of course, man op¬
erated and controlled balloons were too expensive and impractical.

Since 1938, the main work has been in perfecting the measuring
instruments and the necessary radio equipment to transmit the data
from its source to observers on the ground. During the war years, a
great stride was made when directional antennas were perfected to the
extent that the course of the balloon and the sounding equipment could
be followed and sufficient data secured to permit very accurate deter¬
mination of wind direction and velocity to extreme heights regardless
of the weather.

Present day demands for weather data are such that observations
all over the world are made simultaneously, and the collection and
evaluation of these data must be made as quickly as possible. Weather
information, just like news, must be up to date to be of greatest value.
And, of course, measurements of the elements of weather in the atmos¬
phere are just as necessary as on the surface.

Today, soundings are made at approximately 75 stations in the
continental United States, 15 stations in the territory of Alaska, from
weather ships at sea, and from other outlying stations. These observa¬
tions are made twice daily and all stations make their releases for
the soundings as nearly simultaneously as possible. In less than 3 hours
from the time the ascensions begin, the data resulting from the sound¬
ings are available in every forecasting center in the United States — at
least the data up to the 400 millibar pressure level.

The essential features of the equipment used in radio sounding
today are as follows: A free balloon is used to lift through the atmos¬
phere a small assembly, consisting of a pressure unit, a temperature
element, an electrical hygrometer, a switching device, a battery, and a
very small and compact radio transmitter. This assembly is capable of
measuring accurately and transmitting signals equivalent to these
measurements of temperature, humidity, and pressure at all altitudes
up to the bursting-altitude of the balloon.

These signals are transmitted by radio at a rather high frequency
and are picked up at the ground stations by means of high frequency

Radio Sounding of the Atmosphere

51

receivers. With certain modifications, radio directional antennas can be
used, in which case wind data are secured along with the other elements.
These signals are then put through a frequency meter which, in a
sense, evaluates them; they are then printed in graph form by means
of an automatic recorder. This graphical recording is computed and
evaluated on the basis of the relationship between frequency and sur¬
face temperature, and frequency and humidity as set up and calibrated
just prior to the release of the equipment. Adiabatic charts are then
drawn from these data; and from the charts, significant information is
taken, such as the lapse rate, isothermal layers of air, temperature
inversions, humidity values and changes, the freezing level, icing areas,
and the pressure, temperature, and humidity at specific levels.

If the sounding is; made in conjunction with directional antennas,
the wind velocity and direction at all levels is also computed and eval¬
uated. All of this information is then put in message form using a num¬
ber code, the purpose of which is to conserve space and transmission
time. It is transmitted to the regional forecasting centers and other
agencies, where the data are replotted on pseudo-adiabatic charts and
are used by meteorologists in formulating their forecasts as to the
future trends of the weather in any given locality. Also, this informa¬
tion is used in planning aircraft operations and for obtaining correc¬
tions for the effects of the wind and the density of the air on artillery
fire and guided missiles.

I shall now present the components of the sounding equipment in
more detail. The instruments sent aloft with the balloon are a trans¬
mitter, a battery, a modulator, an antenna, and a parachute.

The Modulator consists of a temperature element, an electric hy¬
grometer or humidity element, a pressure unit, and the necessary re¬
lays, wiring, etc.

The Temperature element is a ceramic resister which can be easily
clipped into the circuit when needed. Its range of measurement is from
60° to 90° C.., and its accuracy is + or - 0.5° C.

The Humidity element is a thin plastic strip %” wide and 5” long,
which is coated with a gelatinous film containing a hygroscopic salt and
each edge is silvered and serves as an electrode. The element is placed
in a clip which plugs into the Modulator. The resistance of this element
varies inversely with humidity of the air. It is designed to indicate
relative humidity over the range between 15% and 100% and its ac¬
curacy is + or - 8% above 0° C. and -f or - 12% below 0° and down to
about -30° C. Below -30° C., relative humidity ceases to be of much
practical importance. In fact, there is no good practical way to deter¬
mine humidity, even in surface observations, below -30° C.

The Pressure unit consists of a pressure responsive capsule (aneroid
cell) assembly connected to a level system which moves an electrical
contact over a commutator. The commutator is made up of conducting
segments separated by insulating segments. The conducting segments
are so arranged that every 5th one is connected into the reference cir¬
cuit; the others are connected into the humidity circuit. When the con¬
tact point is on an insulated segment the temperature circuit is doing
the modulating. The conducting segments for humidity switch in the
humidity circuit by means of a relay.

52

Texas Journal of Science

Each pressure unit is calibrated in a pressure chamber at the fac¬
tory and an individual calibration curve is drawn. This calibration
curve is later used during the sounding to determine the indicated pres¬
sure at any given point in the ascension. This will be further explained
after the transmitter is introduced.

The Transmitter has two tubes. One tube is for the relaxation oscil¬
lator or modulated oscillator which is controlled by the amount of re¬
sistance in the grid circuit which, in turn, is controlled by the tempera¬
ture or humidity in their respective circuits or by the reference cir¬
cuit. The reference circuit is at constant resistance and hence gives a
given constant oscillation which, when received and recorded at the
ground station, provides a means of counting contacts through which
the contact point has switched and thereby a means of ascertaining
the pressure.

The tuned circuit resonates at approximately 1 megacycle per sec¬
ond. When a reference segment is closed, the time constant between the
resistance and capacitance of that circuit is such that the oscillation of
the tube is interrupted at an audio rate of approximately 195 cycles
per second. As the resistance of the temperature and humidity circuits
varies, the time constant will also vary to produce interruptions between
approximately 8 and 180 cycles per second. The ground equipment
makes use of these interruptions to convert the signal into graphic form.

The second tube in the transmitter acts simply as a carried oscil¬
lator with a. nominal frequency of 397 megacycles, but it can be varied
between 387 and 407 megacycles.

The transmitter is equipped with a silver-coated single rod antenna.

The power is furnished by a battery pack composed of one A-unit
and three B-units.

The A-Unit is a small SVa” x 2” x 1”, 3 cell, lead acid type battery
with a nominal voltage of 6.3 V and current drain of 250 milliamperes.
The weight is 137 grams.

The B-Unit is the same size as the A-Unit, but has 18 cells, lead acid
type, with a nominal voltage of 36V, and a current drain of 30 miili-
amperes. Each one weighs 155 grams. The electrolyte used is 1.35 specific
gravity sulfuric acid.

The complete assembly, including cord and parachute, weighs ap¬
proximately 1650 grams.

The ground components are a high frequency receiver, a frequency
meter, and an automatic recorder. During a sounding the signals are
picked up by the receiver which is connected to the antenna through a
co-axial cable. The signal is measured by the frequency meter by con¬
verting the output of the receiver to a pulsating direct current which is
proportional to the audio frequency of the receiver output. The value is
indicated on a dial by means of a pointer, and it appears in numbers
of bi-cycles. This frequency meter is directly connected to another fre¬
quency indicator in the automatic recorder. This meter is situated be¬
tween a light source and a photoelectric tube.

There is also an automatic paper feed that feeds out continuous
graph paper which has 100 divisions from left to right representing
0 to 100 bi-cycles.

Radio Sounding of the Atmosphere

5 3

The photoelectric system is part of a rotating scanning device which
is synchronized with a rotating cylinder and tapper bar assembly. On
the rotating cylinder is a raised ridge. When the frequency meter
pointer interrupts the light to the; photo tube, a coil is energized which
causes the tapper bar to tap against the rotating cylinder. In between
he two is the graph paper and an inked ribbon. The tap will cause a
printed dot on the paper and the print will correspond to the number
of bi-cycles as indicated by the frequency meter. This gives an auto¬
matic graph of the temperature, humidity, and pressure which is being
currently measured by the modulator as it ascends through the at¬
mosphere.

The height of the sounding depends on the ability of the balloon to
withstand cold temperatures and to expand. The balloon used is a 350
gram molded sphere. When inflated with hydrogen or helium it is about
5 feet in diameter. It is designed to expand to approximately 16 feet
in diameter before bursting. Synthetic rubber, such as neoprene, which
has been used for the past several years is not as satisfactory as the
pure latex balloons used prior to the war. The bursting altitude varies
directly with the height of the Tropapause. The “Tropapause” is a term
applied to the region between the Tropasphere and the Stratosphere
where a minimum temperature is reached. At Yakutat, Alaska, the
altitude of the Tropapause for the 3 summer months in 1945 averaged
approximately 12,000 feet higher than it did during the previous 3
winter months. The soundings averaged approximately 15,000 feet high¬
er during the summer months than during the winter months.

The highest sounding during the year of 1945 at the Yakutat,
Alaska station was to 93,200 feet (approximately) and the pressure was
19 millibars. The next highest sounding was to a height of 92,400 feet
and 21 millibars pressure. These two altitudes are just above the ex¬
treme altitudes possible at that northern latitude for neoprene rubber
balloons of the type currently in use. The latitude enters into the con¬
sideration because the Tropapause is lowest at the poles and highest at
the equafor. This is true because of temperature differences in the
lower atmosphere and the effects of the earth’s rotation.

It was found that as much as 15% increase in altitude of the burst¬
ing point of the ballons could be -achieved by treating the balloons by
immersion in water at 80° C. for a period of 30 minutes just prior to
inflating them, and, by keeping the interval between the inflation and
the release to a minimum.

The coloring of the surface of balloons with dark liquids (such as
ink) in order to increase the absorption of heat from the sun seemed
to be of little or no value. Long exposure of neoprene balloons to strong
sunlight proved very harmful to the rubber in that it decreased its
ability to expand.

The greatest difficulty in making soundings and getting them com¬
pleted on schedule was experienced in coping with the icing problem.
The balloons were frequently iced down. This was caused by the balloon
passing through super-cooled moist air. The ice accumulated on the
balloon and instruments to the extent that the lift of the balloon be¬
came nullified and the assembly would descend. Frequently, after it

54

Texas Journal of Science

had descended below the freezing level, the ice would melt off before
the assembly reached the ground and it would again ascend. Sometimes
this second ascension would penetrate the icing layer and successful
sounding were accomplished without additional releases. However, if
the weight of the ice forced the balloon to the ground, a second release
was made, using a balloon inflated with more gas to give increased
lift. On one occasion, icing and de-icing occurred three times and on
the fourth ascent, the balloon penetrated the ice layer.

High winds are a hazard to making releases due to the fragileness
of the instruments. However, once the balloon and instruments are air¬
borne, the wind does not affect the sounding, provided the station is
properly situated with regard to mountains and massive steel obstruc¬
tions which could affect the radio reception. Successful releases have
been made in winds blowing in excess of 60 miles per hour at land
stations. Releases can be made in higher winds at sea by having the
ship run with the wind. Releases in 30 and 40 M.P.H. winds are routine
at many stations.

It is now possible to make soundings by radio from airplanes. High
altitude craft drop instruments by parachute, similar to those I have
described. As the slow descent takes place the signals are picked up in
the plane and the data are secured as by standard procedure, except
in reverse. This method is especially valuable for military purposes and
for securing data from over the oceans where full time operation of
weather ships is not feasible. It is especially valuable in diagnosing and
studying the nature of hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico and other sim¬
ilar areas.

Without radio sounding of the atmosphere, meteorology would be
set back to its status of 50 years ago. Just as a doctor must know what
is taking place inside the body, so the meteorologist must know what
is taking place in the atmosphere. Radio soundings give him the data
he needs.

THE REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE SIERRA
VIEJA RANGE OF SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS

DAVID L. JAMESON AND ALVIN G. FLURY
University of Texas

INTRODUCTION

The herpetological fauna of the Sierra Vieja Mountains of south¬
western Texas has not previously been studied. This mountain range
lies in the Chihuahuan biotic province as limited by Dice (1943). Little
attention has been given to the herpetological fauna of this province in
Texas and no study of the ecological distribution of reptiles and am¬
phibians has previously been made. The reptiles and amphibians of the
Big Bend region of Texas were studied by Schmidt and Smith (1944).
The reptiles and amphibians of northern Coahuila, Mexico, were studied
by Schmidt and Owens (1944). Smith and Taylor (1945) have reviewed
the snakes of the adjoining regions of Mexico. Strecker (1909) has sur¬
veyed the reptiles and amphibians of Brewster County, Texas. Brown
(1903) lists 48 species from Pecos, Texas.

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

55

The present report concerns part of a survey of the ecological
distribution of the vertebrates of the Sierra Vieja region. The mammals
have been treated by Blair and Miller (1949) and the summer resident
birds have been studied by Phillips and Thornton (1949). The physical
and vegetational environment of the region has been described by York
(1949).

Herpetological field collections were made by A. L. Carroll, T. M.
Burke, and the authors with the assistance of the 20 other members of
the survey party. The period of June 3 to July 9, 1948 was spent in the
field. Some specimens were collected in July, 1947 by W. F. Blair, C. E.
Miller, Jr., and D. G. Walker, and some were collected in April, 1948
by Blair and Miller.

We are indebted to C. E. Miller, Sr. and Mr. Roosevelt for permis¬
sion to work on their ranches in the Sierra Vieja region and to Mr.
Duncan for the privilege of the use of his land near Porvenir, on the
Rio Grande.

The writers are indebted to Dr. W. F. Blair for his constant advice
and encouragement.

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS

The area under consideration is in the northern part of the Chi-
huahuan biotic province of Dice (1943) and lies at the western side of
the Valentine plain. The descriptions and limits of the biotic districts,
life belts and associations have been presented by York (unpublished).
These divisions are based on the vegetation as well as on the mammals,
birds, reptiles and amphibians.

SIERRA VIEJA BIOTIC DISTRICT

The Sierra Vieja biotic district is named for the mountains of that
name which trend north-south along the northwestern edge of Presidio
County. The rim rock at the western side of the mountains divides the
districts from the Rio Grande Basin biotic district. The mountains them¬
selves are considered as the Roughland life belt as distinguished from
the Plains life belt on the Valentine plain. The mountains were formed
by tilted fault blocks covered by Tertiary volcanoes before faulting.
They are rather low which accounts for the smaller amount of rainfall
and the absence of the high altitude associations of the Davis Moun¬
tains. The Valentine plain extends northeast to the base of the Davis
Mountains and is comparable to the Plains life belt of the Davis Moun¬
tains as described by Blair (1940). Our work was done chiefly on the
C. Espy Miller ranch at about the center of the range.

PLAINS LIFE BELT

Seven associations were definable in the Plains life belt in the
general vicinity of the Miller ranch. Another, the yucca — tobosa asso¬
ciation, occurred along the road from Valentine to Marfa. This life belt
was characteristically sandy but two associations, which were quite
rocky, were found near the Roughland life belt. The ecological distri¬
bution of the reptiles and amphibians in the Plains life belt, as evi¬
denced by the specimens we collected, is shown in Table I. A short
discussion of each association follows:

56

Texas Journal of Science

This association is not listed by York (unpublished) because no
active collecting was done there. The specimens collected in this asso¬
ciation were picked up on the highway between Marfa and Valentine.
Several other coachwhips (Coluber flagellum testaceus) were seen but
escaped into rock filled culverts.

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

57

BLACKBRUSH— CREOSOTE— BUSH ASSOCIATIONS

The blackbrush — creosote — bush association occurred on a slightly
raised hill about three miles east of the Miller ranch house. The soil
was calcareous with much gravel and small rock but was not considered
a rocky plains association because of its distance from the Roughland
belt, the absence of large rocks and the absence of Roughland belt
species.

YUCCA— BLACKBRUSH— GRAMA ASSOCIATION

This association was found about four miles northeast of the Miller
ranch house. Reptiles and amphibians seemed to be rather scarce and
relatively little work was done in the area.

CATCLAW— TOBOSA ASSOCIATION

The catclaw — tobosa association, as described by York (unpub¬
lished), occupied almost all of the alluvial fan areas except for the
catclaw — cedar association at the mouths of the major canyons. Because
the presence or absence of rocks seemed to be the limiting factor con¬
cerning reptiles and amphibians, the rocky parts of the catclaw — tobosa
association close to the canyon mouths are here included in the catclaw —
cedar association. The remainder of the alluvial fans were predomi¬
nantly sandy with scattered areas of small rock. The catclaw bushes
increased in size and density away from the canyon mouths and fur¬
nished good rodent cover. None of the reptiles or amphibians was found
to be restricted to the association, but Holbrookia maculata, Phrynosoma

58

Texas Journal of Science

cornutum and Cnemidophorus perplexus reached their highest abund¬
ance here and were considered characteristic of the association.

TOBOSA— GRAMA ASSOCIATION

This association was predominantly sandy, but where it was found
adjacent to the Roughland belt areas of small rock were scattered
through it. Some yuccas and a few bushes occurred in the association.
According to our collections the following species were limited to the
association: Bufo insidior, Ambystoma tigrinum, Kinosternon flavescens,
Tantilla atriceps, Crotalus scutulatus and Crotalus viridis. The first three
of these were found only in or near lakes in the association.

MESQUITE— HUISACHE— BLACKBRUSH ASSOCIATION

This association occurred in an area about one mile southeast of
the Burford well. It was quite rocky, but without large rocks, and lay
about midway between the mountains and a mountainous outlier in
the Plains. Reptiles were apparently scarce in this association. None of
the species found there was restricted to the association.

CREOSOTE— BUSH— CATCLAW— BLACKBRUSH ASSOCIATION

This association was found adjacent to the mountains in the vicinity
of Roosevelt well. The area was quite rocky with little grass but with
many desert shrubs under which rodent burrows were common. A total
of 14 species was found in this association. Eight (57.1%) of these species
were considered Plains forms, two (14.3%) were considered as equally
divided between Plains and Roughlands and four (28.6%) were con¬
sidered Roughland forms. In the Sierra Vieja biotic district, Cnemido¬
phorus grahamii reached its peak abundance here and Crotalus atrox
seemed to be restricted to the association.

CATCLAW— CEDAR ASSOCIATION

The catclaw — cedar association, as described by York (unpublished),
occurred only in small areas at the mouths of the major canyons. Be¬
cause the presence or absence of rocks seemed to be the limiting factor
for reptiles and amphibians, the rocky parts of the catclaw — tobosa
association close to the canyon mouths are here included in the
catclaw — cedar association. Characteristic species were Coleonyx brevis,
Holbrookia texana, Cnemidophorus gularis and Cnemidophorus per¬
plexus. Bufo punctatus and Rana pipiens were caught near tanks and
rain pools in the association. The association seemed to be a region of
marked overlap between the faunas of the Plains life belt and of the
Roughland life belt. None of the species found there was restricted to
the association. Nine species (36.0%) seemed to be primarily Plains
forms, one species (4.0%) was considered as equally divided between
the Plains and Roughland life belts, and 15 species (60.0%) seemed to
be primarily Roughland forms.

ROUGHLAND LIFE BELT

Six, associations were distinguishable in the Roughland life belt.
All of them were very rocky and there was ample cover for reptiles.
Free water occurred as pools or short streams of running water in the

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Yieja

59

major canyons. The distribution of the reptiles and amphibians in the
various associations, as shown by our records, is given in Table II. A
short discussion of each association follows:

STREAM RED ASSOCIATION

The stream bed association was found in the bottom of all major
canyons and many branch canyons throughout the mountains. Small
scattered pools of water were formed in potholes in the bed rock in
many places and running water from springs was found in Z H Canyon.
Hyla arenicolor, Diadophis regalis and Trimorphodon vilkinsonii were
found only in this association. Thamnophis eques reached its greatest
abundance here and was largely limited to this association. Urosaurus
ornatus and Cnemidophorus gularis were also common species here.

CATCLAW— GRAMA ASSOCIATION

This association occupied most of the mountain slopes and flats
lying between the rock bluffs and the stream beds. Rock slides of vari¬
able size were scattered throughout the association. Lampropeltis alterna
and Tantilla nigriceps were found only in this association. The most
common reptiles found here were Cnemidophorus gularis and Urosaurus
ornatus.

GRAM A— BLUE STEM ASSOCIATION

This association occurred in scattered areas along the eastern front
of the mountains. In geographic position and probably in herpetology it
was similar to the catclaw — grama association. Comparatively little
collecting was done in the association which, together with its small
extent, may account for the small list of species.

ROCK BLUFF ASSOCIATION

The rock bluff association occurred on the precipitous rim rock at
the edges of the mesa. These bluffs were almost continuous on the
western edge of the mountains but were broken by passes on the eastern
side. The bluffs usually extended only a short way down to meet the
mountain slopes, but in some instances they fell off directly from the
mesa to the stream bed. The association could be collected in only along
its edges, which accounts for the small list of species recorded from it.

LECHUGIJILLA — BEARGRASS ASSOCIATION

The lechuguilla— -beargrass association occurred over most of the
tops of the tilted fault blocks of the mountains. The soil was usually
shallow and very rocky. Less collecting was done here than on the lower
reaches of the mountains because of the relative inaccessibility of the
mesa. Cnemidophorus gularis was the most characteristic species of the
mesa top.

HUISACHE— LECHUGUILLA ASSOCIATION

Only one rather small area of this association was found. It was on
top of the mesa almost completely surrounded by the lechuguilla —
beargrass association. The only specimen taken, a Salyadora hexalepis,

60

Texas Journal of Science

was the only specimen of its species from the mesa top and one of two
specimens from the Roughland life belt.

RIO GRANDE BASIN BIOTIC DISTRICT

The Rio Grande Basin biotic district lies to the west of the Sierra
Vie j as along the river. Presumably the area was once covered by an
internal drainage lake and the topographic relief is not so great as in
the mountains but more pronounced than on the Valentine plain. The
area was visited on four short collecting trips totalling about six and
one-half days by six or seven members of the field party. The four
species of amphibians and 11 species of reptiles collected there by us
do not furnish a complete list for the district. The distribution of the
specimens in our collection from the various ecological associations is
given in Table III. Five species were found in this district which were
not found in the Sierra Vieja biotic district. These include:

Bufo cognatus Cnemidophorus tessellatus

Bufo compactilis Elaphe laeta

Uta stansburiana

A short discussion of each of the five associations found in the district
follows:

OCOTILLO— CREOSOTE— BUSH ASSOCIATION

The ocotillo — creosote — bush association occurred over most of the
Rio Grande Basin biotic district from the western rim rock of the Sierra
Vieja Mountains almost to the Rio Grande. Less collecting was done
here than along the river. The association was made up mostly of ridges
of water worn rocks and gravel covered by more or less thick stands
of ocotillo, creosote bush and yuccas. A whipsnake (Coluber taeniatus)
was the only form found here and not in other associations of the dis¬
trict, and it was also found in the Sierra Vieja biotic district.

CATCLAW— CREOSOTE— BUSH ASSOCIATION

This association was found in the low sandy washes which drained
the higher ocotillo — creosote — bush association. The association was
rather sharply separated from the ocotillo — creosote — bush association
along the bases of the ridges and from the salt cedar — mesquite associa¬
tion at the edge of the flood plain of the river. Fairly large catclaw
and mesquite bushes were found along the central drainage ditches
and smaller creosote bushes and mesquites were found on the dryer
flats of the association. Uta stansburiana seemed to be restricted to the
association. A racerunner (Cnemidophorus tessellatus) reached its high¬
est abundance here and was considered characteristic of the association.

SALT CEDAR— MESQUITE ASSOCIATION

The salt cedar— mesquite association extends along the banks and
flood plain of the Rio Grande and varies from 50 to 200 yards wide on
the Texas side. The trees were very thick and in some places were im¬
penetrable. The plains toad (Bufo cognatus) and a rat snake (Elaphe
laeta) were found only in this association. The spadefoot (Scaphiopus
Hammondii) and a tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus) were found only in

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

61

this association of the district, but they were also taken in the Sierra
Vieja biotic district and probably occurred in other associations of the
Rio Grande basin. Three species, Scaphiopus hammondii, Cnemidophorus
grahamii and Cnemidophorus tessellatus, were found in the relatively
open edges of the association near the catclaw — creosote — bush asso¬
ciation.

OIL FIELD ASSOCIATION

This association consisted of a cleared field in the Rio Grande flood
plain and was surrounded by the salt cedar — mesquite association. The
association was distinguished chiefly by its bird population. The single
Thamnophis marcianus which we collected there was the only example
of its species from the Rio Grande basin but others were taken in the
Sierra Vieja biotic district and the species probably occurred through¬
out the salt cedar — mesquite association.

COTTONWOOD ASSOCIATION

The cottonwood association consisted of scattered large cottonwood
trees surrounded by the salt cedar — mesquite association. Like the old
field association it was distinguished chiefly by its bird population. The
single Sceloporus undulatus from this association was collected on the
trunk of one of the large trees and was the only example of its species
collected from the Rio Grande basin. Other specimens were seen on
other cottonwood trees but could not be caught.

ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES

A total of 1671 herpetological specimens was recorded from the
areas studied during the course of the summer field work. This collec¬
tion includes 53 species: ten species (343 specimens) of anurans; one
species (171 specimens) of urodeles; two species (28 specimens) of
turtles; 16 species (925 specimens) of lizards; and 24 species (204 speci¬
mens) of snakes. This list includes two species of snakes collected by
Blair, Miller, and Walker in 1947 and a probable call record for one spe¬
cies of frog. All of the specimens collected are deposited in the Texas
Natural History Collection at the Department of Zoology, The Univer¬
sity of Texas.

AMPHIBIA

SALIENTIA

Scaphiopus couchii Baird. These toads were probably restricted to
the associations of the Plains belt. Four specimens were taken on the
Miller ranch, one from the catclaw — tobosa association, one from the
creosote — bush— catclaw — blackbrush association and two from the
catclaw — -cedar association. One specimen was collected in the salt
cedar — mesquite association of the Rio Grande Basin district. Three
others were caught but lost, two from the salt cedar — mesquite and one
from the catclaw — creosote — bush associations of the Rio Grande Basin
district. All were collected at night. Two taken during a light rain were
near shallow ponds of rain water, but the others were active on dry
nights and were not in the near vicinity of water. No calls of this species

62

Texas Journal of Science

were heard and their breeding had probably been completed during the
heavy rains v/hich fell the week before we reached the ranch.

Scaphiopus hammondii Baird. This species occurred mostly in the
associations of the Plains belt, but it did enter the Roughland belt.
Twenty specimens were collected. Ten were taken in the tobosa —
grama association of the Plains belt. Two were caught in the stream bed
and one in the catclaw — grama association of the Roughland belt. Seven
newly transformed young were taken from rain pools in the salt cedar —
mesquite association of the Rio Grande Basin district. Two other speci¬
mens were taken by Miller from the tobosa — grama association in 1947.
All specimens were taken while active at night except the young from
the Rio Grande Basin. Most of the toads were found near rain water
ponds during or immediately after rains, but a few were found on dry
nights away from any standing water. Calls were not heard, and the
breeding season was probably finished during the rains shortly before
we got to the ranch.

Bufo cognatus Say. Only one specimen of this toad was collected. It
was found in a cattle watering trough one mile south of Porvenir in
association with eight Bufo compactilis. These toads were apparently
stranded in the trough when they went to the water as a breeding
site. The trough was in the salt cedar — mesquite association of the Rio
Grande Basin district.

Bufo compactilis speciosus Girard. Twenty-five specimens were col¬
lected, all in the Rio Grande Basin district. Sixteen of these were newly
transformed young taken from small rain pools in the salt cedar —
mesquite association five miles north of Porvenir. Eight adults were
taken from a cattle watering trough in the same association one mile
south of Porvenir. One adult was collected at night in a dry wash of
the catclaw — creosote — bush association five miles north of Porvenir.
The adults seem to agree with Smith’s (1947) description of the sub¬
species speciosus.

Bufo insidior Girard. A total of 179 specimens was collected, all call¬
ing in chorus from rain pools and small ponds, in the tobosa — grama
association. On the night of June 3, 153 specimens were collected follow¬
ing an early evening shower. The others were taken on rainy nights.
Numerous clasping pairs were found.

Bufo punctatus Baird & Girard. Forty-eight specimens were taken
on the Miller ranch, 38 from the Plains belt and 10 from the Roughland
belt. Of those from the Plains belt, 30 were taken from a chorus around
a tank in the catclaw — cedar association, three were taken from tanks in
the tobosa — grama association and two from the catclaw — tobosa asso¬
ciation. Several clasping pairs and single females were found on June 3.
Three specimens were collected from the creosote — bush — catclaw —
blackbrush association at the edge of cattle watering troughs. Those
from the Roughland belt are from the following associations: catclaw —
grama, six; stream bed, four. None of these was calling or clasping, and
some of them were taken on clear, dry nights.

Hyla arenicolor Cope. Thirteen adults and several larvae were col¬
lected from the stream bed association of the Roughland belt. Small

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

63

isolated pockets in bed rock in the middle and upper reaches of Z H
and Box Canyons were filled with rain water. Most such pockets con¬
tained large numbers of tadpoles which were predominantly of Hyla
arenicolcr. Most of the adults were found in the direct sun on large
boulders or on solid rock stream banks within fifty feet of a pond. Their
color blended well with the lichen covered rock. Many of the Thamnophis
eques collected near these ponds were gorged with the larvae of these
frogs. No calls were heard even on the rainy nights. One specimen was
caught by Blair in April, 1948 at dusk on dry rocks at the mouth of
Z H Canyon.

Syrrhophus gaigeae Schmidt & Smith. Calls of Syrrhophus were
heard frequently on rainy nights from rock bluffs and rock slides of the
Roughland belt. Although we could make close approach, we were un¬
able to find the animals responsible for the calls.

Rana pipiens berlandieri Baird. These frogs occurred rather com¬
monly in both the Plains and Roughland belts, apparently in nearly
equal numbers. Surprisingly, Schmidt & Smith (1944) reported them as
not occurring in the mountain canyons of the Chisos Mountains. Speci¬
mens were taken by us from the near vicinity of the tanks and artificial
lakes of the Plains belt in the following associations: catclaw — cedar, 15;
tobosa — grama, one. Fourteen specimens from the Roughland belt were
all taken near or in ponds in the stream bed association. One Thamnophis
eques was found trying to swallow a large Rana pipiens and another
frog was found with two leeches attached to it. Only a few larvae of
this species were seen. These were in the larger ponds and running
water of the stream bed of Z H Canyon.

Microhyla olivacea (Hallo well). This species occurred in both the
Plains and Roughland belts. Those from the Plains belt totaled three
from the catclaw — cedar and nine from the tobosa — grama association.
All were found calling on rainy nights from tanks or ponds. Of the
Roughland belt specimens, eight were from the stream bed and two
from the catclaw— grama association. The latter were found on a rain¬
less night and were not in the vicinity of water. All stream bed speci¬
mens were taken on a rainy night while calling from a small pool, except
for two which were found calling in midafternoon of a cloudy day.

URODELA

Ambystoma tigrinum mavortium Baird. A total of 171 larvae of this
species was seined from an artificial lake about two miles north of the
Miller ranch house. The lake was about ten years old, ranged from
three to five feet deep, was very muddy, and wasi said to contain water
throughout most years of normal rainfall. The area surrounding the
lake was in the tobosa — grama association, and rocks, logs and other
surface cover were lacking. In July, 1947, several hundred specimens
were collected from this and smaller nearby lakes by Blair, Miller and
Walker. These specimens show reduction of the external gills and some
development of the adult dorsal pattern, indicating that transformation
probably does occur. Kinosternon flavescens, Thamnophis marcianus,
and Thamnophis eques (one specimen) were collected at this lake. It
seems probable that these reptiles feed on the salamanders.

6 4

Texas Journal of Science

REPTILIA

CHELONIA

Kinosternon flavescens (Agassiz). Four specimens were seined from
the same lake from which Ain by stoma tigrinum was taken. Eight others
were taken in July, 1947, by Blair, Miller and Walker from several small
lakes in the same area. These turtles were probably restricted to the
water tanks of the Plains belt. They probably preyed on the Ambystoma
larvae.

Terrapene ornata (Agassiz). This species occurred in all associations
of the Plains belt but was not found in the Roughland belt. Specimens
were taken in the following associations: catclaw — cedar, one; creosote —
bush — catclaw — blackbrush, three; blackbrush — creosote — bush, two;
tobosa — grama, three; catclaw — tobosa, four. Three others were taken
in the yucca — tobosa association a few miles west of Marfa.

LACERTILIA

Colecnyx brevis Stejneger. This species was apparently restricted to
rocky areas. Twenty-one specimens from the Plains belt were all taker
in the catclaw — cedar association. Of 16 from the Roughland belt, eight
were from the catclaw — grama, seven from the streambed, and one
from the lechuguilla — beargrass association. All except one, found under
a large rock in the catclaw — cedar association, were collected while ac¬
tive at night.

Cotaphytus collaris baileyi Stejneger. The collared lizard occurred in
areas of scattered rock in both the Plains and Roughland belts. Three
were caught in the Roughland belt of the Miller ranch. One was taken
in the lechuguilla — beargrass, one in the catclaw — grama and one in the
stream bed association. In the Plains belt six were caught in the
catclaw— cedar association, one in the catclaw — tobosa association and
one in the creosote — bush — catclaw — blackbrush association. Two were
collected from the lechuguilla — beargrass association about 12 miles
southwest of Valentine, and one was collected in the catclaw — grama
association of a Roughland outlier about seven miles southwest of
Valentine.

Holbrookia maculata aproximans Baird. Sixty-one specimens were
collected on the Miller ranch, all from the Plains belt. These lizards were
most common in sandy areas, but a few were taken near the edges of the
rockier catclaw — cedar association where they were replaced by
Holbrookia texans. Specimens were taken in the following associations:
catclaw — cedar, one; creosote — bush — catclaw— blackbrush, one; mes-
quite — huisache — blackbrush, seven; tobosa — grama, 14; catclaw — tobosa,
38. These lizards were found active during most daylight hours. One
was found on an ant bed one night about 10 p.m. When approached,
almost every specimen would run to the nearest catclaw or yucca, and
many escaped down kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriami) burrows. Three
of the specimens from the tobosa — grama association were taken from a
prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) town about 10 miles north of the
Miller ranch house. These, as well as other specimens from a prairie
dog town 10 miles west of Ft. Davis, Jeff Davis County, Texas, have a
distinct pink coloration. This color was found on only one specimen from

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

65

the Miller ranch. There is considerable variation in the dorsal pattern
of this species. Many pairs as well as single animals escaped down
prairie dog holes before they could be shot. A partly digested specimen
was found in the alimentary tract of a garter snake (Thamnophis
marcianus) .

Holbrookia texana (Troschel). Fifty-three specimens were collected,
all from the Miller ranch except two from the catclaw — creosote — bush
association of the Rio Grande Basin district five miles north of Porvenir.
In the Sierra Vieja district these lizards seemed to be more or less
restricted to rocky areas. In the Roughland belt they were taken in the
following associations: catclaw — grama, 10; stream bed, eight. In the
Plains belt they were taken in the following associations: catclaw — cedar,
30; creosote bush — catclaw — blackbrush, two; catclaw — tobosa, one. Two
specimens from the catclaw — grama association were seen eating winged
termites which had emerged during and after a light afternoon shower.

Sceloporus poinsettii Baird & Girard. Nineteen specimens were col¬
lected from rock crevices in the Sierra Vieja District. Two specimens
were found in cracks of large boulders in the transitional catclaw — cedar
association of the Plains belt. The others were from the Roughland belt:
nine from the stream bed, six from the catclaw — grama and two from
the rock bluff association. At only one time did we see this species
active.

Sceloporus undulatus consobrinus Baird & Girard. This species was
found chiefly on large yuccas or catclaw bushes in the Plains belt. One
specimen was taken in the Roughland belt, in the catclaw — grama as¬
sociation. Eleven specimens were taken from the following associations
of the Plains belt: catclaw — cedar, six; catclaw tobosa, three; creosote
bush — catclaw — blackbrush, one; and tobosa — grama, one. One specimen
was taken from a large cottonwood tree in the Rio Grande Basin district
five miles north of Porvenir.

Uta stansburiana stejnegeri Schmidt. Three specimens were collected
in the catclaw — creosote — bush association of the Rio Grande Basin dis¬
trict five miles north of Porvenir. This species was not found in the
Sierra Vieja district.

Urosaurus ornatus schmidti (Mittleman). This species was very
common in the rocky areas of the Miller ranch. One specimen was
taken from the salt cedar — mesquite association of the Rio Grande
Basin district. In the Sierra Vieja district specimens were obtained in
the following associations of the Roughland belt: lechuguilla — beargrass,
seven; rock bluff, eight; catclaw — grama, 34; stream bed, 74; in the
Plains belt, nine were taken in the transitional catclaw — cedar associa¬
tion. One specimen was seen eating a winged termite after an afternoon
shower.

Phrynosoma cornutum (Harlan). Sixty-one specimens were collected
from the Plains belt of the Sierra Vieja district. None was taken in the
Roughland belt. The collection represents the following associations:
catclaw — tobosa, 30; mesquite — huisache — blackbrush, 14; tobosa — grama,
five; blackbrush — creosote — bush, five; catclaw — cedar, two; creosote —

66

Texas Journal of Science

bush — catclaw — blackbrush, two; and yucca — blackbrush — grama, two.
Specimens were seen active during most daylight hours. Two were seen
eating ants.

Phrynoscma modestum Girard. This species is almost restricted to
the Plains belt in the Sierra Vieja district. Fourteen specimens are
from the following associations of the Plains belt; catclaw — tobosa,
nine; catclaw— cedar, three; mesquite — huisache— blackbrush, one; and
blackbrush — creosote — -bush, one. Only one specimen was found in the
Roughland belt, in the catclaw — grama association. Two were collected
from the Rio Grande Basin district, one each from the oeotillo —
creosote — bush association two miles northwest of Porvenir, and from
the catclaw — creosote bush association five miles north of Porvenir.

Cnemidophorus grahamii Baird & Girard. This species occurred in
about equal numbers in the Roughland and Plains belts of the Sierra
Vieja district. On the Plains belt they were found in the following as¬
sociations: creosote — bush — catclaw — blackbrush, 14; catclaw — -cedar,
four. The specimens from the Roughland belt were taken in the follow¬
ing associations: stream bed, 10; catclaw — grama, two; lechuguilla —
beargrass, one. Nine specimens were taken in the Rio Grande Basin
district five miles north of Porvenir. These were found only in the
sandy areas, not on the rocky ridges. Three of these were in the salt
cedar — mesquite association, and six were in the catclaw — creosote —
bush association. One specimen on the Miller ranch was seen eating a
scorpion.

Cnemidophorus gulaiis octolineatus Baird. This lizard was not found
in the Rio Grande Basin district although it was a common form in the
Roughland belt and the rocky parts of the Plains belt of the Sierra Vieja
district. Thirty-seven specimens from the Plains belt were taken in the
following associations: catclaw — cedar, 29; catclaw — tobosa, three; mes¬
quite — huisache — blackbrush, three; tobosa — grama, two. In the Rough-
land belt 127 specimens were taken in the following associations:
lechuguilla — beargrass, 38; catclaw — grama, 47; grama — bluestem, two;
and stream bed, 42. There is only a slight overlap of the local range of
this species with Cnemidophorus perplexus along the edges of the rocky
associations of the Plains belt. Little difficulty was found in separating
the two species, the C. gularis being distinguished by larger size, spots
between at least some of the longitudinal lines, lack of a distinct (sharp-
edged) mid-dorsal line, and lack of diffused blue color over the ventral
surface. One specimen was seen eating a winged termite.

Cnemidophorus perplexus Baird & Girard. These small blue bellied
lizards seemed to be strictly limited to the Plains belt in the Sierra Vieja
district. They were most common in sandy areas. Two hundred and
forty-three specimens were collected from the following associations:
catclaw — cedar, 53; creosote — bush— catclaw — blackbrush, three; black-
brush — creosote — bush, eight; catclaw— tobosa, 174; tobosa — grama, one;
yucca — blackbrush — grama, two; and mesquite — huisache — blackbrush,
two. They were found active during all daylight hours and usually made
for the nearest catclaw bush when frightened. Many escaped down
rodent burrows under these bushes. Two were found, in the gullet of a
nestling roadrunner (Geococcyx calif ornianus). The characteristic differ-

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

67

ences between this lizard and the young of C. gularis have been noted
under the latter species.

Cnemidophorus t. tessellatus (Say). We found these lizards only in
the Rio Grande Basin district and in the following associations: ocotillo —
creosote — bush, one; salt cedar — mesquite, two; catclaw — creosote —
bush, 49. These lizards were found active during all daylight hours ex¬
cept early morning. They were very wary and quickly ran toward small
mammal burrows (Bipodomys merriamii and Perognathus penicillatus)
under the bushes. Seldom could we approach a specimen closer than
twenty feet and we had to shoot all specimens.

Eumeces brevilineatus Cope. Seven specimens were collected from
the Roughland belt of the Sierra Vieja district. Five came from the
stream bed, and two came from the catclaw — grama association. One
ran into a pool and swam under water in an attempt to escape.

Eumeces obsoletus (Baird & Girard). Three specimens were collected
from the catclaw — grama association of the Roughland belt, and one
juvenile was taken in the catclaw — cedar association of the Plains belt.
One specimen was seen in the stream bed association, but it escaped into
a rock crevice. The species was probably restricted to rocky areas.

SERPENTES

Leptotyphlops humilis segregus Klauber. Two specimens were col¬
lected, active at about 10 p.m., one each from the stream bed and cat¬
claw — grama associations. This species probably occurs throughout the
Roughland belt and on the rocky areas of the Plains belt.

Diadophis; r. regalis Baird & Girard. Two specimens were taken, ac¬
tive at mid-morning, in the stream bed association of Z H Canyon. This
species was probably restricted to the rocky associations of the area.
Because of the great variation within the genus it seems best to describe
these specimens. Both are males and neither has a nuchal ring. The total
length measures 522 mm. and 259 mm., tail length 78 mm. and 37 mm.,
ventrals 227 and 224, caudals 53 in both, scale rows 17-15-15 in both,
supralabials 7-7 in both, infralabials 9-9 in the larger and 9-8 in the
smaller, temporals 1-1-2 in both. In contrast to the type series of
D. r. blanchardi Schmidt & Smith (1944) the present specimens have a
higher ventral count, and they have two temporals in the third row
instead of one.

Heterodon nasicus kennerlyi Kennicott. We have two specimens of
this species, both from the Miller ranch. One specimen, a female, was
collected by Miller in 1947 from the tobosa — grama association. The
other specimen was taken in the catclaw — cedar association. This species
may be restricted to the Plains belt.

Coluber flagellum testaceus Say. The coachwhip occurred more
commonly in the Plains belt than in the Roughland belt. Of 10 speci¬
mens collected, only two were from the Roughland belt. One of these
was in the stream bed association, and the other was in the lechuguilla —
beargrass association on top of the mesa. Specimens from the Plains belt
were from the following associations: catclaw — tobosa, four; creosote —

68

Texas Journal of Science

bush — catclaw — blackbrush, one; mesquite — huisache — blackbrush, one;
and yucca — tobosa (near the center of the plain on the road from Val¬
entine to Marfa), one. Several others were seen on the highway but
they escaped into the rocky banks of drainage culverts. Two of our
specimens have a distinct reddish color anteriorly and ventrally while
another is dark red. These three red specimens also . show a darkening
of the dorsal head scales and each dorsal scale on the body is black
tipped. The other specimens show the more typical yellow-tan dorsal
color. One specimen was seen with its head and neck protruding from
a rodent burrow beneath a catclaw bush. As we approached, the snake
retreated down the burrow and our attempts to find it by digging were
fruitless. Two additional specimens were collected in 1947 by Bair,
Miller, and Walker from the Miller ranch, but the associations were
not recorded.

Coluber taeniatus ornatus (Baird & Girard). This form is called
Coluber taeniatus girardi Stejneger & Barbour by those who suppress
secondary homonyms. Seven specimens collected on the Miller ranch
are from the following associations of the Roughland belt: catclaw —
grama, one; stream bed, six. One specimen was found dead on the road
15 miles north of Porvenir in the ocotillo — creosote-bush association
of the Rio Grande Basin district.

Salvadora grahamiae Baird & Girard. Seven specimens were col¬
lected on the Miller ranch, all from rocky areas. One was taken in the
catclaw — cedar association of the Plains belt. One escaped into a gopher
burrow in the lechuguilla — beargrass association and another escaped
into a rodent burrow in the catclaw — cedar association. The others were
from the following associations of the Roughland belt: stream bed,
two; catclaw — grama, two; grama — bluestem, one; lechuguilla — bear-
grass, one.

Salvadora hexalepis deserticola Schmidt. Unlike S. grahamiae, this
species seemed to occur mainly in the Plains belt. Two specimens were
taken, however, in the Roughland belt, where one each was caught in
the stream bed and huisache — lechuguilla associations. The four speci¬
mens from the Plains belt were taken in the following associations:
catclaw — tobosa, one; tobosa — grama, one; creosote-bush — catclaw —
blackbrush, two.

Elaphe laeta intermontanus Woodbury & Woodbury. Two specimens,
a male and a female, were collected five miles north of Porvenir in the
salt cedar — mesquite association of the Rio Grande Basin district. They
were active when found about 6 p.m. The male has a total length of
1054 mm. and a tail length of 189 mm. The ventral scale count is 207 and
the subcaudal scale count is 72. There are 58 dorsal blotches on the body
plus 19 on the tail. These blotches together with the black edge are
about two and one-half scale lengths wide on the mid-dorsal line and
are separated by bands of gray dorsal color about one scale wide; the
blotches extend laterally over the median 11 or 12 scale rows. The
female also has a total length of 1054 mm. and a tail length of 163 mm.
The ventral scales number 222, and the subeaudals number 64. There
are 48 dorsal blotches on the body plus 14 on the tail. Our specimens
agree more closely with E. I. intermontanus Woodbury and Woodbury

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Yieja

69

(1942) than with E. I. laeta. They do not agree completely, however,
with either form. Additional work is needed on this species in western
Texas.

Elaphe subocularis (Brown). This species may be called Elaphe
sclerotica Smith (1941) by those who suppress secondary homonyms.
These snakes occurred in the Roughland belt of the Sierra Vieja district
and in the rocky parts of the Plains belt adjacent to the mountains. All
of our specimens were taken from the general vicinity of the mouth of
ZH Canyon. Collections were made in the following rocky associations of
the Plains belt: catclaw — tobosa, one; catclaw — cedar, four. In the
Roughland belt specimens were taken in two associations as follows:
catclaw — grama, six; and stream bed, one. We find previous records of
the species from the type locality, 50 miles south of Pecos, Texas and
from two localities in Coahuila, Mexico. In view of the scarcity of
published records, it seems worthwhile to note some characters evident
in our series of eight males and four females. Our series is described as
follows: scalation; scale rows, 33-33-23 in eight specimens, 35-33-23,
33-35-23, 33-33-21, 31-31-23 in the other four; ventrals, 263-177, (mean
270.5); subcaudals, 71-79 (mean 74.0); supralabials 10 to 11; infralabials
usually 14-14, but 15-15 in two specimens and 16-15 in one; loreals
usually 2-2 but frequently reduced to one on one side or the other;
preocular single; postoculars usually 2-2, but 3-3 in two specimens;
suboculars 3-3 in five specimens, 2-2 in four, 2-3 in two and 3-2 in one.
Other charaters are as follows: spots on body 21-24, on tail 8-9; total
length 818-1443 mm. (mean 1106.7); tail length 119-180 mm. (mean
151.9); tail length/total length .125-. 146 (mean .137). These characters as
well as the coloration agree with Brown’s (1901a) description of the
type series from approximaely 50 miles, airline, north-north-east of the
Miller ranch. Our series differs radically in scale.rows (usually 33-33-23)
from a specimen (scale rows 21-23-21) reported by Smith (1939) from
near Saltillo, Mexico, about 450 miles south-east of the Miller ranch.

All of our specimens were taken between sunset and about 10
p.m. while they were apparently foraging; none was found with obvious
food lumps in it. These snakes seemed to prefer rather calm nights, and
surprisingly none was found on the several moist or rainy nights of the
trip. The light from gasoline lanterns did not seem to disturb them, and
they made little attempt to bite or escape when captured. One specimen
was first located by the reflection of the rays of an electric headlight
from its eyes. Walker (1938) lists five snakes which show reflection in
the eyes only one of which is a North American form, Agkistrcdon
mokasen, the copperhead.

Pituophis catenifer sayi (Schlegel). Bullsnakes were found most
commonly in the Plains belt, but a few were found in the Roughland
belt. Four specimens were collected from the following associations of
the Plains belt; catclaw — tobosa, two; creosote-bush — catclaw — black —
brush one; tobosa — -grama, one. One specimen from the Roughland belt
was taken from the lechuguilla — beargrass association. A specimen was
taken by Blair in the catclaw — grama association in April, 1948. Asso¬
ciation data are not available for four other specimens taken by Miller
in 1947 .

70

Texas Journal of Science

Lampropeltis alterna (Brown). One female specimen was collected
near the mouth of Fox Hollow on the Miller ranch. It was active about
10 p.m. in the catclaw — grama association. According to Schmidt &
Davis (.1941) only five previous specimens have been reported. The
specimen agrees in general with Brown’s (1901b) description of the
species but the variable characters seem worthy of description. Our
specimen is described as follows: postoculars 2-2; temporals 3-3-4 on the
left side and 2-3-4 on the right; supralabials 7-7, 3rd and 4th in the
eye; infralabials 11-11; scale rows 25-25-21; ventrals 219; subcaudals 63;
total length 542 mm.; tail length 88 mm. The dorsal color is gray. On
the body there are 36 black transverse bands narrowly edged with
white. Complete bands, two to three scales wide (mid-dorsally), alter¬
nate with a narrower band one to two scales wide. The narrow bands
are broken dorsally, dorso-laterally, or both by the ground color. Of
the wider bands, the three most anterior bands and the last one just
anterior to the anus are split transversely by a rather definite red band.
The remaining wide bands and a few of the narrowed ones have scat¬
tered red flecks on the black scales. Small black spots, mostly lateral,
are irregularly scattered between the bands. The head is gray, irregu¬
larly mottled with black. A dark stripe passes from the eye to the angle
of the mouth. Immediately behind the head, there is a red-centered
black spot and other scattered black spots which probably represent
broken bands. On the tail there are five wide bands which form rings
around the tail. The first band posterior to the anus is split dorsally by
a red band. The narrow bands are represented on the tail by round
mid-dorsal spots. The ventral surface is dark gray with an indefinite
midventral stripe of white. Along the lateral edges or the ventral plates
there is a white stripe which is broken by the extension of the dorsal
bands into the dark ventral color.

Lampropeltis getulus splendida (Baird & Girard). Two specimens
were collected in the northeastern part of the Valentine plain. One was
3.2 miles west of Marfa, the other was 12 miles west of Marfa, both
dead on the road. The surrounding association was yucca — tobosa.
Another was seen dead on the road at Valentine but was not collected.
The species was probably active at night and more common than these
records indicate.

Rhinocheilus lecontei tesselatus Garman. Two males and one female
were collected from the catclaw — grama association of the Roughland
belt. One male was collected from the catclaw — tobosa association of the
Plains belt. All were collected while active on clear nights. Klauber
(1941a) gives 14.0% of the total length as the maximum tail length of
females. Our one female has a tail length of 15.1%. The males are well
within Klauber’s ranges of variation for this subspecies. An interesting
variation is found in the ventral markings of the four specimens. One
male is cream colored ventrally, (Plains specimen) lacking any dark
markings. Another male has definite dark blotches on almost every
ventral scale. The other two are about midway between these extremes
having dark blotches on every six to ten ventrals.

Sonora episcopa (Kennicot). One specimen was found in the cat¬
claw — grama association of the Roughland belt. The specimen was dark
gray in color, had no black bands and both loreals were missing.

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

71

Thamnophis eques cyrtopsis (Kennicott). This species was found
very commonly around the pockets of water in the stream bed associa¬
tion of the Roughland belt. Of 102 specimens taken on the Miller ranch
in 1948, all were from the stream bed association except for one from a
lake in the tobosa — grama association and two from the catclaw — cedar
association at the mouth of ZH Canyon. Most specimens were taken
during the day. Many of them were found feeding on Hyla arenicolor
larvae, which were common in pools. One specimen was found with
the head and forelimbs of a large adult Rana pipiens protruding from
its mouth. Four additional specimens taken in 1947 by Blair, Miller and
Walker were all from the stream bed association.

Thamnophis marcianus (Baird & Girard). This species seems to be
restricted to the vicinity of more or less permanent water in the Plains
belt, but it may extend up the stream bed association into the Rough-
land belt. Of five specimens taken on the Miller ranch, two at a lake in
the tobosa — grama association, and two at a tank in the catclaw — cedar
association, four were active on nights of light rain. One, taken in late
afternoon in the stream bed association at the mouth of ZH Canyon,
regurgitated the hind quarters of a Holbrookia maculata) . One specimen
was taken early in the morning from the old field association of the
Rio Grande district.

Hypsiglena ochrorhyncha texana Stejneger. This species seemed to
be restricted to rocky areas. Five specimens were taken in the Rough-
land belt, while only one was caught in the Plains belt (catclaw — cedar
association). Of the Roughland belt specimens, two were from the stream
bed association, and three were from the catclaw — grama association.
All were caught while active at night except for one which was found
during the day under a rock. The Sierra Vieja region is intermediate
between the ranges of H. o. ochrorhynchus and H. o. texana as limited
by Tanner (1942). Our material is arbitrarily referred to the latter
form.

Trimorphodon vilkinsonii Cope. A specimen was found active and
apparently foraging at the junction of the stream beds of Fox Hollow
and Box Canyon, about nine p.m., on a clear, calm night. The sur¬
rounding area was extremely rocky, a habitat of many other members of
the genus.

Klauber’s review (1941b) of the genus indicates the presence of
only three other known specimens of this species. Klauber described
the three specimens in detail. Cope (1886) described the type and Taylor
(1939) described another.

Our specimen is 625 mm. long. There are 229 ventrals and 84 sub-
caudals. The scale row count is 21-22-17. The head scalation corresponds
closely to that given by Klauber. The loreals are 3-3, the third being
small and inferior to the posterior as in the type. The preoculars are
3-3, with the middle one smaller than the others. The postoculars are
3-3. The temporals are 3-4-5. The supralabials are 9-9, with the 4th and
5th contacting the eye; the 4th, 5th, and 6th are larger than the others.
The infralabials are 12-12. The fifth is largest, and the first pair contact
in the mid-ventral line.

The color pattern, with exceptions, matches that of Klauber’s de-

72

Texas Journal of Science

scription. The head has three dark-brown spots on a grey background.
One spot is on the posterior part of the frontal, and there is one on the
anterior part of each parietal. The spots on the parietals are connected
to the one on the frontal by light brown marks. There are 20 dark-brown
body bands on a gray background. The first 11 spots are constricted at
the median line. The area lateral to these constrictions is four to five
scales wide in the first seven bands and three scales wide in the others.
There are 12 tail bands, each two to three scales wide except for the
most posterior one, which is one scale wide. Each back and tail band is
bordered both posteriorly and anteriorly by a very light band, which
is one scale wide. The lateral edges of the body bands are one scale
wide. All but the last four bands reach the ventrals. All but the first
four tail bands reach the subcaudals. These four and the last body band
are two scales wide at the lateral edges. There are one to three lateral
spots of dark brown between each of the body bands. Each lateral spot
covers one to three scales, and several of them overlap into the ventral
surface. This gives the ventral surface a rather broken-edged effect.

The interspaces are four to nine scales wide. This is a marked dif¬
ference from the specimens examined and described by Klauber (1941b).
Klauber describes the interspaces as eight to twelve scales wide and
the bands as four to five scales wide. The bands in our specimen are
three scales wide except for the first seven. Our specimen differs from
the other known specimens in the number of tail spots or bands. In our
specimen there are twelve spots while in the others there are seven to
ten. Our specimen has 84 subcaudals as opposed to 77-79 in the other
specimens. Additional material will be necessary for determining inter¬
relationships in this species.

Tantilla atriceps (Gunther). One specimen was taken near the
Miller ranch house in the tobosa — grama association.

Crotalus atrox Baird & Girard. The Western Diamondback rattle¬
snake seemed to be much less common in the area than we had expected.
From other ecological records it seems that the species should occur
throughout the area. We obtained only six specimens, four from the
creosote — bush — catclaw — blackbrush association of the Plains belt and
two from the salt cedar — mesquite association of the Rio Grande Basin
district. One of the Rio Grande specimens was takqn while active at
night, and the other was found coiled in the shade of salt cedars about
8 A.M. The Miller ranch specimens were found either coiled in the
shade cf bushes or active in the late afternoon. One specimen was seen
dead cn the road 15 miles north of Porvenir in the ocotillo — creosote —
bush association of the Rio Grande Basin district. The pinkish color
noted by Gloyd (1940) in specimens from southeastern Arizona and
southwestern New Mexico was present in all our specimens. The reddish
color is increased posteriorly in the largest specimens and the pattern
is more indistinct in these than in the smaller ones.

Crctalus 1. lepidus Kennicott. Four specimens were collected from
the following associations of the Roughland belt: catclaw — grama, two;
stream bed, two. All were active when taken, two at night and two in
the early morning. One of the catclaw — grama specimens was in a rock
slide within the association.

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

73

Crotalus m. molossus Baird & Girard. Six specimens were collected.
All came from the Roughland belt except one from a very rocky area
in the catclaw — cedar association of Knox Canyon alluvial fan. Three
were taken in the catclaw — grama association and two in the stream bed
association. Two of the specimens from the catclaw — grama association
and one sighted but not caught, were found in rock slides within the
association. The sight record animal was located about 11 a.m. Removal
of rocks in an attempt to catch the snake resulted in the discovery that
the air between the rocks of the slide was very noticeably cooler than
the surrounding air. Such rock slides probably furnish important cover
during the hot days for crepuscular and nocturnal species in the area.
Four specimens were caught at night and one each was caught in early
morning and later afternoon giving strong evidence for the crepuscular
and nocturnal habits of this species.

Crotalus s. scutulatus (Kennicott). One specimen was collected by
Blair in July, 1947 from an old gopher burrow in the tobosa — grama
association of the Plains belt.

Crotalus v. viridis Rafinesque. One specimen was taken by Miller in
June, 1947, from the tobosa — grama association of the Plains belt. A
single specimen was seen by our party about 10 miles north of the
Miller house in the tobosa— grarna association. This animal was coiled
in the mouth of a prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) hole, and it es¬
caped down the burrow when molested.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS

The amphibians and reptiles collected in the Sierra Vieja region
represent several major faunal elements. The relations of these ele¬
ments are as follows, and the forms that are restricted in the region
studied to the Roughland life belt (**) and the Plains life belt (*) of
the Sierra Vieja biotic district and to the Rio Grande biotic district (***),
are indicated:

Five species are widely distributed in North America and occur in
several biotic provinces. These widely distributed species include:

Ambystoma tigrinum* Lampropeltis getulus*

Rana pipiens** Coluber flagellum*

Sceloporus undulatus*

Eighteen species are widely distributed in western North America
and occur there in several biotic provinces. This western faunal element
includes:

Scaphiopus hammondii*

Bufo compactilis***

Bufo cognatus***

Holbrookia maculata*
Crotaphytus collaris**
Usosaurus ornatus**

Uta stansburiana***
Cnemidophorus gularis**
Cnemidophorus tessellatus***

Heterodon nasicus*

Coluber taeniatus**

Elaphe laeta***

Pituophis catenifer
Rhinocheilus lecontei**
Thamnophis marcianus*
Hypsiglena ochrorhyncha**
Crotalus atrox*

Crotalus viridis*

74

Texas Journal of Science

Eight species have ranges which center in the Great Plains of the
central United States. The plains species include:

Bufo insidior*
Microhyla olivacea
Phry nosoma cornu turn*
Eumeces obsoluetus**

Terrapene oranta*
Kinosternon flavescens*
Sonora episcopa
Tantilla atriceps*

Twelve species have their centers of distribution in Mexico and
range into the Sierra Vieja region from the south. These include:

Scaphiopus couchii*

Bufo punetatus**

Hyla arenicolor**
Holbrookia texana**
Eumeces brevilineatus**
Leptotyphlops liumillis**

Diadophis regalis**
Salvadora hexalepis
Thamnophis eques**
Crotalus scutulatus*
Cotalus lepidus**
Crotalus molossus**

Ten species appear to be largely limited to the Chihuahuan biotic
province. These are:

Syrrhophus gaigae**
Cnemidophorus grahamii**
Cnemidophorus perplexus*
Coleonyx brevis**
Phrynosoma modestum*

Sceloporus poinsettii**
Salvadora grahamiae**
Elaphe subocularis**
Lampropeltis alter na**
Trimorphodon vilkinsonii**

The forms indicated here as Roughland life belt (**) refer to those
apparently restricted by the rocks in the area.

The proportions of the several faunal elements in the Sierra Vieja
region are as follows: 10 species (19.0%) largely restricted to the
Chihuahuan province; 18 species (34.0%) widely distributed in western
North America; eight species (15.1%) Great Plains; 12 species (22.5%)
Mexican; and five species (9.4%) widely distributed in North America.

A comparison of the herpetological fauna of the Sierra Vieja region
as known from our material with that of the Big Bend region as de¬
scribed by Strecker (1909) and by Schmidt and Smith (1944) shows a
considerable difference between the regions. Thirteen species recorded
by us from the Sierra Vieja region were not listed previously from the
Big Bend region. These include:

Ambystoma tigrinum
Scaphiopus couchii
Scaphiopus hammondii
Bufo cognatus
Bufo compactilis
Microhyla olivacea
Holbrookia maculata

Heterodon nasicus
Lampropeltis alterna
Lampropeltis getulus
Sonora episcopa
Trimorphodon vilkinsonii
Crotalus viridis

Seventeen species which have been recorded from the Big Bend area
were not obtained by us in the Sierra Vieja region. These include:

Acris crepitans
Bufo woodhousii
Pseudemys floridana
Pseudemys scripta
Platypeltis emoryi

Sceloporus magister
Sceloporus merriami
Gamelia wislizenii
Gerrhonotus liocephalus
Ficimia cana

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

75

Leptotyphlops dulcis Natrix erythrogaster

Sonora semiannulata Natrix rhombifera

Elaphe bairdi Agkistrodon mokasen

Arizona elegans

A complete review of the faunal relations of the various biotic dis¬
tricts of Trans-Pecos Texas is here impossible due to the lack of knowl¬
edge of these little known regions. Some deductions can be made, how¬
ever, from the rather notable differences in the herpetofauna of the
Sierra Vieja and Big Bend regions.

Thirteen forms were found in the Sierra Vieja region but not in the
Big Bend. Difference in field technique will probably explain the ab¬
sence of Ambystoma tigrinum from the Big Bend list. These salamanders
were extremely common in the ponds and lakes of the Plains life belt
of the Sierra Vieja district. Several anurans ( Scaphiopus couchii,
Scaphiopus hammondii, Bufo cognatus, Bufo compactilis, Microhyla
olivacea), common in the Sierra Vieja region, are probably present in
the Big Bend. Lack of records from that area may possibly be explained
by the short breeding season and the limitation of movements of these
forms to this period. We are surprised that Holbrookia maculata is not
recorded from the Big Bend region for it is a common form in the
Sierra Vieja biotic district and has a general range extending far to the
east of our region into central Texas. Two snakes, Lampropeltis alterna
and Trimorphodon vilkinsonii, are rare forms. The known range of the
latter lies considerably west of the Big Bend, but the records of the
former encircle that region. Three snakes, Heterodon nasicus, Crotalus
viridis, and Sonora episcopa are scarce forms which would possibly be
recorded in the Big Bend region by further search. It is strange that the
Big Bend list does not include records for Lampropeltis getulus, and that
this species was so scarce in our records.

Of the seventeen forms recorded in the Big Bend region but not
in the Sierra Vieja region, Pseudemys floridana, Pseudemys seripta,
Platypeltis emoryi, Sceloporus magister, Gambelia wislizenii, Natrix
erythrogaster, and Natrix rhombifera, are possibly present in the Rio
Basin biotic district of our region. Several species (Acris crepitans,
Sceloporus merriami, Sonora semiannulata, Agkistrodon mokasen, and
Gerrhonotus liocephalus) reach their known western limits in the Big
Bend region and may not extend into the Sierra Vieja region. Three
snakes (Arizona elegans, Ficimia cana, Elaphe bairdi) are rare forms
which possibly occur in the Sierra Vieja region although we were unable
to obtain records. We are surprised that we were unable to obtain
Bufo woodhousii and Leptotyphlops dulcis“ for they are apparently
common in the Big Bend and other surrounding regions.

Strecker (1909) records Eumeces tetragrammus from the Big Bend
region but this record is far frony the western limits of the species as
described by Smith (1946) and is not confirmed by subsequent workers
in the Big Bend region.

SUMMARY

The ecological distribution of the reptiles and amphibians in the
Sierra Ahej a region of Trans-Pecos Texas was studied from June 3 to
July 9, 1948. : R; - .

76

Texas Journal of Science

Fifty-three species of reptiles and amphibians were recorded from
the area. These included ten species of anurans, one species of urodele,
two species of turtles, 16 species of lizards and 24 species of snakes.

In the Sierra Vieja biotic district 26 species were apparently limited
to the roughlands or to an intermediate zone of more or less rocky
alluvial fans adjacent to the canyon mouths. Eleven of these did not
extend down even into the intermediate zone. Nineteen species were
limited to the association of the Plains belt. Six of these were appar¬
ently limited to the sandy areas of the plains. Three species ranged
through both life belts. Five species were found only in the Rio Grande
Basin biotic district.

Of the 53 species recorded, 10 (five lizards, four snakes, one frog),
19.0 per cent of the fauna, were largely limited to the Chihuahuan biotic
province. Twelve (22.5%) of the species have their centers of distri¬
bution in Mexico, and eight (15.1%) are Great Plains in their affinities.
The other forms (43.4%, 23 species) are wide ranging either in western
North America or over much of the continent.

Thirteen (24.5%) of the species recorded in the Sierra Vieja region
have not been found in the Big Bend region. Seventeen (30.4%) of the
species recorded in the Big Bend region have not been found in the
Sierra Vieja region.

LITERATURE CITED

Blair;, W. Frank — 1940— A contribution to the ecology and faunal relationships of the mam¬
mals of the Davis M'ountain region, southwestern Texas. Misc. Publ. Univ. Mich.,
46: 1-39, 3 pis., 1 map.

Blair, W. Frank and Clay E. Miller Jr. — 1949 — The mammals of the Sierra Vieja range of
southwestern Texas. Texas. J. Sci. 1(1) :67-92.

Brown, Arthur Erwin— 1901a — A new species of Coluber from western Texas. Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Phila. 53 :492-495, 1 pi., 1 text fig.

1901b — A new species of Ophibolus from western Texas. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.
53:612-613, 1 pi.

1903 — Texas reptiles and their faunal relations. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 55:543-558.

Cope, Edward Drinker — 1886 — Thirteenth contribution to the herpetology of tropical Amer¬
ica. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 23 :271-287.

Dice, Lee R. — 1943 — The biotic provinces of North America. Univ. Mich. Press, v-viii,
3-78 pp., 1 map.

Gloyd, Howard K. — 1940 — The rattlesnakes. Chi. Acad. Sci. Spec. Publ. 4 :iii-vii, 1-266,
5 figs., 22 maps, 3 pis.

Klauber, L. M. — 1941a — The long-nosed snakes of the genus Rhinocheilus. Trans. San Diego
Soc. Nat. Hist. 9(29) :289-3S2, 3 pis., 1 map.

1941b — The lyre snakes (genus Trimorphodon) of the United States. Trans. San Diego Soc.
Nat. Hist. 9(19): 163-194, 7 pis., 1 map.

Phillips, Howmer W. and Wilmont A. Thornton — 1948— The summer resident birds of the
Sierra Vieja range in southwestern Texas. Tex. J. Sci. In press.

Schmidt, Karl P. and Dwight Davis — 1944 — Field book of. snakes. New York: Putnam, i-xii,
1-365, 35 pis., 103 text figs.

Schmidt, Karl P. and Tarleton F. Smith — 1944 — Amphibians and reptiles of the Big Bend
region of Texas. Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zoo. Ser., 29(5) :75-96.

Schmidt, Karl P. and David W. Owens — 1944 — Amphibians and reptiles of northern Coahuila,
Mexico. Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.. Zoo. Ser., 29(6) : 97-115.

Smith, Hobart M . — 1939 — An annotated list of the Mexican amphibians and reptiles in the
Carnegie Museum. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 27 : (21) :311-320.

1941 — Notes on Mexican snakes of the genus Elaphe. Copeia 1941(3) : 132-136.

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Yieja

77

TABLE I

Numbers of specimens of reptiles and amphibians collected in each
ecological association of the Plains Life Belt of the Sierra Vieja Biotic
District.

SPECIES RECORDED

RECORDS IN

ECOLOGICAL

ASSOCIATIONS

Yucca — Tobosa

Blackbrush —
Creosote-bush

Yucca — Blackbrush —
Grama

Catclaw — Tobosa

Tobosa — Grama

Mesquite — Huisaehe—

Blackbrush

Creosote-bush —

Catclaw — Blackbrush

Catclaw — Cedar

Plains Belt Species

Scaphiopus couchii

1

1

2

Scaphiopus hammondii

12

Bufo isidior

179

Ambystoma tigrinum

171

Kinosternon flavescens

12

Terrapene ornata 3

2

4

3

3

1

Holbrookia maculata

38

14

7

1

1

Sceloporus undulatus

3

1

1

6

Phrynosoma cornutum

5

2

30

5

14

2

2

Phrynosoma modestum

1

9

1

3

Cnemidophorus perplexus

8

2

174

1

2

3

53

Heterodon nasicus

1

1

Coluber flagellum 1

4

1

1

Lampropeltis getulus 2

Thamnophis marcianus

2

2

Tantilla atriceps

1

Crotalus atrox

4

Crotalus scutulatus

1

Crotalus viridis

1

Wide Ranging Species

Microhyla olivacea

9

3

Salvadora hexalepis

1

1

2

Pituophis catenifer

2

1

1

Roughland Belt Species

Bufo punctatus

2

3

3

30

Rana pipiens

1

15

Coleonyx brevis

21

Crotaphytus collaris

1

1

6

Holbrookia texana

1

2

30

Sceloporus poinsetti

2

Urosaurus ornatus

9

Cnemidophorus grahamii

14

4

Cnemidophorus gularis

3

2

3

29

Eumeces obsoletus

1

Salvadora grahamiae

1

Elaphe subocularis

1

4

Rhinocheilus lecontei

.1

Thamnophis eques

1

2

Hypsiglena ochrorhyncha

1

Crotalus molossus

1

78

Texas Journal of Science

TABLE II

Numbers of Specimens of Reptiles and Amphibians collected in each
ecological Association of the Roughland Life Belt of the Sierra Vieja
Biotic District. The symbol x indicates sight or call records where ac¬
tual specimens were not collected.

SPECIES RECORDED RECORDS IN ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS

rd

<P

&

+3 cd
cd s-j

UO

a

Cd^
C CO

a <*>
£3

Opq

&

M

u

o

pH

cd

3

a b

a cd

O) 0)

2*3

o BP

§5

3 «

Roughland Belt Species

Bufo punctatus

4

6

Hyla arenicolor

13

Syrrhophus gaigeae

X

X

X

Rana pipiens

14

Coleonyx brevis

7

8

1

Crotaphytus collaris

1

2

3

Holbrookia texana

8

10

Sceloporus poinsetti

9

6

2

Urosaurus ornatus

74

34

8

7

Cnemidophorus grahamii

10

2

1

Cnemidophorus gularis

42

47

2

36

Eumeces brevilineatus

5

2

Eumeces obsoletus

X

3

Leptotyphlops humilis

1

1

Diadophis regalis

2

Coluber taeniatus

6

1

Salvadora grahamiae

2

2

1

1

Elaphe subocularis

1

6

Lampropeltis alterna

1

Rhinocheilus lecontei

3

Sonora episcopa

1

Thamnophis eques

103

■; • 7 •

Hypsiglena ochrorhyneha

2

3

Trimorphodon vilkinsonii

1

Crotalus lepidus

2

2

Crotalus molossus

2

3

Wide Ranging Species

Microhyla olivacea

8

2

Salvadora hexalepsis

1

l

Pituophis catenifer

1

l

Plains Belt Species

Scaphiopus hammondii

2

1

Sceloporus undulatus

1

Phrynosoma modestum

1

Coluber flagellum

1

1

Thamnophis marcianus

1

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Sierra Vieja

79

1946 — Handbook of lizards. Ithaca, N. Y. Comstock, vii-xxi, 1-557, 135 pi., 136 text fig.,
41 maps.

1947 — Subspecies of the sonoran toad (Bufo compactilis Wiegman). Herpetologica 4: 7-13,
1 pi.

Smith, Hobart M. and Edward H. Taylor — 1945 — An annotated checklist and key to the
snakes of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 187 :ii-iv, 1-239.

Strecker, J. K. Jr. — 1909 — Reptiles and amphibians collected in Brewster County, Texas.
Baylor Bull. 12(1) : 11-16.

Tanner, Wilmer W. — 1944 — A taxonomic study of the genus Hypsiglena. Great aBsin Nat.
5(3 & 4) : 25-92, 3 pi., 1 map.

Taylor, Edward H. — 1988 — On Mexican snakes of the genera Timorphodon and Hypsiglena.

Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull. 25(16) :357-383, 1 text fig., 3 pis.

Walker, Ernest P. — 1938 — Eyes that shine at night. Ann. Rep. Smiths. Inst. 1938 :349-361.
1 pi.

Woodbury, Angus M. and Dixon M. Woodbury — 1942 — Studies of the rat snake, Elaphe laeta,
with description of a new subspecies. Proc. Bio. Soc. Wash. 55 :133-142, 2 figs.

York, C. L. — 1949 — The physical and vegetational basis for animal distribution in the
Sierra Vieja range of southwestern Texas. Tex. J. Sci. In. press.

TABLE III

Number of Specimens of Reptiles and Amphibians collected in each
Ecological Association of the Rio Grande Basin Biotic District. The
symbol x indicates sight or call records where actual specimens were
not collected.

SPECIES RECORDED

RECORDS IN ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS

Vi

CO

3

3

rO

i

0)

-4— >

■+J

o

. o

O co

k w

S °
o>

iH cu

Jh

O

o

o

cd.T;

<” cr

O CO

•iH

T5

o

o

£

0)

3*

r— H
• H

o

O

m

o

O

Scaphiopus couchii

X

1

Scaphiopus hammondii

7

Bufo cognatus

1

Bufo compactilis

1

24

Holbrookia texana

2

Sceloporus undulatus

1

Uta stansburiana

3

Urosaurus ornatus

1

Phrynosoma modestum

1

1

Cnemidophorus grahamii

6

3

Cnemidophorus testallatus

1

49

2

Coluber taeniatus

1

Elaphe laeta

2

Thamnophis marcianus

1

Crotalus atrox

x

2

80

Texas Journal of Science

HOW SOCIAL SCIENCES MAY MEET THE CHALLENGE

OF TODAY

FRANK E. LUKSA
Southwestern University

Mankind is living in a period of momentous change, in a transitional
period which, in an octopus-like fashion, reaches and affects the world
in all inhabited regions. The present crisis cuts a diagonal through all
social institutions regardless of their level of cultural development. The
upheaval recognizes no geographic barriers, races, nations, political
ideologies, or economic systems.

The present decade, no doubt, will be recorded by future historians
as the beginning of a fourth major period in the history of man’s cul¬
tural development. Each of the three periods designated by historians
as ancient, medieval, and modern has been ushered in by fundamental
changes in social institutions and patterns of life somewhat comparable
to the changes which we are experiencing today.

In the words of Oswaldo Aranha, new president of the United
nations, “The people that disintegrated the atom now have the mission
of integrating humanity,” we find that we as a nation have the privilege
of taking part in one of the greatest missions mankind has ever set out
upon. The present crisis is a call to mental arms for men and women of
good will everywhere and in the United States in particular. The world
has a choice of either moving forward together into a truly enlightened
era or suffering the fate of Hiroshima. Our present day is charged with
powerful opposing forces, with conflicting issues, and contradicting
ideologies. The way in which these almost insurmountable problems
will be solved today or within the next few months will have a far-
reaching effect upon the future of mankind. There is enough enlighten¬
ment and good will among men today to solve the problems to the best
advantage of the future generations. However, there is a possibility
that through sheer recklessness, inefficient maneuvering, and subter¬
fuge, the same men can lead this world to destruction.

I cannot admit that man is unable to extricate himself from the
maze of present swift-moving events and that he is doomed to certain
and unavoidable destruction along with his total culture heritage. An
attitude of resignation on the part of any of us would seem to indicate
unawareness of the fact that the present day crisis is nothing more
than another movement in the development of man’s history. Some
observers may say that there is no parallel in history to the intricacy
and seriousness of present day problems. To give up and live in fear,
awaiting the fatal day when some nation, by a push-button arange-
ment, will set in motion the destructive forces would be folly. Such an
attitude would be comparable to a man who finds himself in a swift
current and refuses to pick up the oars in the bottom of his boat to
save himself from the inevitable plunge over the falls.

During the last one hundred years natural science has wrought
tremendous changes. It has extended man’s control over nature. It has
enabled him to produce material goods faster and in greater quantities
than anyone dared dream only a generation ago. Distance has been
obliterated and men bound together into a shrunken world. Diseases,

Social Sciences and the Challenge of Today

81

famines, epidemics, and plagues have been almost eradicated. This list
could be extended indefinitely. All in all man enjoys comfort and ease,
especially in our country, whether he reads the daily paper by his fire¬
side or goes by the fastest plane to an executive meeting of his big
corporation. No one who has lived and experienced the advantages of
science would care to exchange today for yesterday.

In spite of all the above mentioned, and many other desirable
changes natural science has brought us, it failed to bring us knowledge
of values which ultimately must form the broad foundation upon which
the future world must rest. The growth and rapid expansion of science
have not been accompanied by the necessary growth of wisdom. The
changes which have bound us together mechanically have not taught
us to live together socially, politically, or economically. The world we
have created has within it too much self-centered indifference, exces¬
sive hate, needless brutality, miscarried justice, and disregard for all
the finer qualities and rights justly belonging to every human being
created in the image of God.

The writer does not mean to imply that natural sciences should take
a vacation and give the social sciences time to make proper implemen¬
tations in the area of human relations. He does not minimize or under¬
estimate the valuable contributions made by natural sciences, but wishes
to point out the gap between what natural sciences have contributed
and the knowledge to use these contributions in the best interest of
society. Atomic power per se is impotent. How man uses it and inte¬
grates it into the total culture pattern is what makes the difference
that counts. Let the natural sciences continue in their research, to stop
them is impossible within our democratic government. However, the
natural scientist and the social scientist must cooperate and coordinate
their work in the future, otherwise the truths discovered in both areas
may ultimately be destroyed. The explosion at Hiroshima was only a
sample of what may come later and also a revelation of the truth that
the natural scientist is too far ahead and the social scientist lagging
behind with excess baggage which he has refused to discard or convert
into beneficial uses.

WHAT MAY THE SOCIAL SCIENCES DO?

It is not in the scope of this paper to present a plan for each social
science and show what its particular responsibility should be in meet¬
ing the challenge of today. It is a well known fact that the social sciences
overlap in the areas which they study, that they are closely related and
interdependent. What can be said of one in connection with the present
day challenge may be applied to others. Taking the total area in which
social sciences are working, let me make the following suggestions as
to how our present crisis may be met.

Human relations have been a subject for scientific study for quite
some time. Social scientists have accumulated vast resources of knowl¬
edge and have developed and refined methods and procedures. They
have compiled statistics and voluminous data on various phases of human
behavior and misbehavior and have arrived at conclusions that are valid.
Why then, are we still confronted with so many social problems, locally,
nationally, and internationally? The trouble is not in the lack of knowl-

82

Texas Journal of Science

edge of human problems, but in the lack of better and more rapid appli¬
cation of what we do know. Are we applying to the fullest extent that
which we know? After all, any scientific law in any science has prac¬
tical utility and value only to the extent that it is applied to the solution
of social problems or in some way used for the advancement and im¬
provement of the social order. I am convinced that we can find enough
evidence to show that we are not applying all we know. In the area of
family relations enough research has been carried out to throw light on
what is necessary, proper, and desirable in all the relations between
future mates prior and after marriage. Yet in spite of all this knowl¬
edge, divorce, rates are steadily mounting. Juvenile delinquency is still
on the increase. We also know a great deal about reforming and re¬
habilitating these whom we legally term criminals; yet the present
set-up in most of our penal systems is obsolete and not conducive to
rehabilitation and reformation of the inmates. We still send teen-agers
to reformatories which are anything but places of reformation. If we
turn our attention to the treatment of our racial minorities, again we
are guilty of not applying what we know is just, honorable, and human.
In better and more adequate education we are lagging even though
we know it is the best cure for intolerance and bigotry, hatred, and
suspicion. Only better education will pay greater dividends in terms of
improved human relations. On the international scene we have also-
failed. We fear Communism, Fascism, and other “isms.” We are
sending material aid to European countries threatened by Com¬
munism. I am not against material aid, but I cannot admit that we can
sell those people our way of life and instill in them principles of democ¬
racy by sending over shiploads of potatoes, shoes, rice, or other material
items. Communism cannot be stopped and democracy effectuated by a
“mess of pottage” anywhere at any time. Fundamental principles con¬
ducive to happiness and future world peace cannot be transported in
wooden boxes or parcels of any kind. We should have learned that
lesson twenty-five years ago. These principles must be first in the
hearts of men; they must be lived by and practiced and if need be, paid
for by the supreme sacrifice. We know we have failed to make democ¬
racy appealing enough to all our own people. We need to clean our
own house before we attempt to sell others our way of life. Let me
borrow an illustration from one of our leading political figures of today.
He illustrates the above point by saying that a merchant cannot stay
in competition long if he criticizes the goods and services of other
merchants. In order to stay in business he must sell goods of equal or
better quality.

Democracy must be made more attractive and desirable to all of
our own people and then it will sell itself. The eyes of the world are
turned to our country for leadership. Shall we as social scientists pass
up the opportunity to do our share with what we know and have at our
disposal? The only limitations on fulfilling the above suggestion of
applying more speedily what we know are limitations that we impose
ourselves.

Natural sciences have brought the world together; social sciences
must teach the world how to live together. This is my second suggestion
for our consideration today. The explosion of the atomic bomb suddenly

Social Sciences and the Challenge of Today

83

made the world feel welded together through some mysterious bond.
In the past, whenever a revolutionary invention or discovery was made,
it was allowed to take time to find its place in the fabric of society.
Naturally there were maladjustments on the part of individuals and
groups as they were readjusting their lives to the new culture trait by
the trial-and-error method. The age of speed in which we are living
today does not allow the use of such a method.

To prevent man’s doom and complete disintegration, we must speed
up learning how to live together as individuals and nations. We have
the “know how,” let us apply it. For centuries man has dreamed of a
world bound together by human love, which is not self-centered, ego¬
tistic, and proud. For centuries man has dreamed of a world filled with
truth, goodness, and beauty. It is the duty and obligation of social
sciences to promote the building of such a world and help man’s dream
to become a reality. Social scientists must promote contacts between
intellectual workers, leaders of groups, and the masses of people every¬
where. One of their specific objectives must be to further the cause of
the world peace through the diffusion of knowledge and the promotion
of understanding. The new power of destruction created by man is
powerful, but it stands impotent against the forces of mutual under¬
standing, cooperation, and appreciation. These forces cannot be tested
at Bikini Island, but must be tested and implemented into every human
heart wherever it beats. The truths discovered by social scientists must
be put to use on the unbeaten paths of humanity. Through common
action and thought they must direct the world into a creative com¬
munity. The intellectual and spiritual potentialities of mankind are still
great. Every person regardless of his depravity and wickedness or degree
of cultural advancement, feels at times that he wants to do better, to
help someone, to show appreciation, cooperation, and respect to his
fellow man. There is still enough goodness left in humanity to make this
world a better place in which to live. There are many fine qualities in
man which have not yet been fully exploited and are begging for intelli¬
gent guidance and leadership. During the last war many of the Euro¬
pean countries have seen their cultural resources destroyed; ours re¬
mained intact. The cultural reconstruction of Europe calls for something
more than material aid. A world-wide conscience must be built in the
people of Europe after it has been developed in our country. They
must be made to feel they are an integral part of the total world com¬
munity and not only necessary appendages to this or that leading power.
They must be made to feel that they count beyond the immediate boun¬
daries of their respective communities. World interests must be their
interests; their interests must be part and parcel of the world. A peace
based on selfish political and economic arrangements cannot be perma¬
nent, and it cannot secure the backing and endorsement of all the
peoples of the world. A broken world cannot be made whole by policies
of hate and by policies dictated by the desire of individual or national
advantage. In order for world peace to be secure, it must be built on
principles leading to the preservation of dignity and worth of the human
person. It must be a peace in which human rights everywhere are pro¬
tected. Social sciences must find it in their province to build a world
where life for every individual will be meaningful. They must build a

84

Texas Journal of Science

world where the specifically human qualities of goodness, friendliness,
respect, and appreciation will find their maximum expression and
growth unhampered by fear, distrust, injustice, and intolerance. Social
scientists are those today who unquestionally are called to give lead¬
ership in the cause of peace. They have the necessary knowledge, edu¬
cation, and an insight into the world situation. If present social scientists
with their social science cannot work toward such peace, then in the
words of Dr. Louis Wirth, University of Chicago, “We must create a
better social science that will be able to do so.”

Finally, I do not wish to leave the impression that social sciences
alone can save the world. Their work must be clearly integrated with
natural sciences as well as with the humanities. The humanities delve
into the creative powers of the human mind; their objective is to help
man to understand himself and his relation to the universe. Together,
they help the individual create for himself a fund of values which in
turn either help or retard the solution of society’s problems. To natural
sciences we look for physical comforts, to social sciences for improve¬
ment of human relations, to the humanities for salvation of the human
spirit.

SANDS OF THE TEXAS GULF COAST— A REVIEW

W. C. RASMUSSEN
Assoc. Professor of Geology
A. & M. College of Texas

Sands form the most important class of rocks known to man. The
sand rocks have a greater variety of uses, and yield minerals of greater
total economic value than do igneous or metamorphic rocks, or than
all other sedimentary rocks, shale, limestone and coal.

It is the purpose of this review to consider the distribution of sand
rocks in the Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas, the information available on
these rocks, the present uses of sand in the rapidly industrializing area,
future uses, and finally, to propose future research on the sand rocks.
In order to understand the application of sand rocks, a first considera¬
tion is given to the composition of sand, the physical properties of sand
rocks, the environment in which sand rocks accumulate, and post-
depositional changes.

Sand may be defined as a rock composed of granular particles in
the size range between gravel and silt. Most American geologists accept
the limits 2mm. to l/16mm. for this size ranged This definition includes
both fragmental particles, derived from pre-existing rock, and shell frag¬
ments, fragments of volcanic ash, and non-fragmental particles, such as
oolitic concretions, and firn ice (neve) 1 2 Of course, the term “sand” has
special meaning to the doctor of medicine, who finds concretionary par¬
ticles of sand size which form in certain organs of the body, or to the

1 Originally proposed by Udden (1898), and popularized by Wentworth (1922). Limits ac¬

cepted by European) geologists, by soil scientists and others are discussed In Chapter 4

of Krumbein and Fettijchn (1938).,

2 This is the broad interpretation held by Scherzer (1910), and modified on page 288 of

Grabau (1932). Twenhofel (1939), page 281, excludes shell fragments, oolites and vol¬
canic ash from his definition of sand.

Sands of the Texas Gulf Coast

85

manufacturer of maple syrup, who calls an insoluble precipitate of cal¬
cium malate, which forms in the syrup, a “sand”, but these do not con¬
cern us here (Smith, 1946).

Sand is an unconsolidated material. However, sands are cemented
together to form sandstone. There is progressive hardening of the rock
from the loose sand to friable, loosely cemented, moderately cemented,
well cemented sand, and, ultimately to quartzite, a quartz sand so firmly
bound with siliceous cement that, upon breaking, the rock fractures
across the grains rather than around them. Most quartzites have been
formed by metamorphic processes involving abnormal heat and pres¬
sure, but they are known also among unmetamorphosed sediments, for
example the Dunlap Quarry quartzite, of the Catahoula formation, of
Brazos County, Texas.

The composition of most sand is quartz, although it is seldom pure,
and may contain characterizing accessories of feldspar, mica, calcite, or
glauconite. In addition, most sands contain, as minor accessories, about
one percent, or less, of minerals of high specific gravity (greater than
2.8), which are termed the “heavy minerals.” These can be separated
from the mass of lighter minerals by settling in a heavy liquid, such as
bromoform (specific gravity about 2.85). Early workers 3 found a typical
heavy mineral suite in sands of the Texas Gulf Coast of leucoxene,
ilmenite, magnetite, tourmaline, zircon, kyanite, staurolite, rutile, garnet,
epidote, serpentine, olivine, actinolite, andalusite and sillimanite. This
assemblage emphasizes metamorphic source rocks.

In the early 1930’s, there was some hope that heavy minerals could
be used for correlation, and therefore for structural determination, in
the Gulf Coast. Then Cogen (1940) of Shell laboratories, considering
over 2,000 heavy mineral samples, worked out five sub-surface zones in
the Cenozoic: the lower Epidote, Staurolite, Kyanite, higher Epidote and
Hornblende. Although these could be plotted on logs, and determined in
outcrop traverse, they were found to transect formations and paleon-
tologic horizons. “For example, the base of the Kyanite zone is shown
to transgress from Eocene strata in the interior into Miocene post-
Discorbis zone sediments near the coast.”

These heavy mineral facies could thus not be relied upon for cor¬
relation, except possibly over a small area. Even then, heavy mineral
work is so laborious that it cannot compete with electric logs and micro¬
fossils in correlation here in the Gulf Coast.

Almost every mineral known can be found in sands. Workable gold
deposits are found in placer sands of mountain streams. “Stream tin”,
cassiterite, occurs locally as a heavy sand concentrate. Small diamonds
are found in sand deposits, in fact the placer occurrences of India and
Brazil were once the chief world source. Ruby, sapphire, emerald and
other gems have been found in sands.

Where other constituents than quartz form all or an appreciable part
of a sand, special rock names are employed. If the sand contains 25
percent or more of feldspar, the name arkose is used. If glauconite is
abundant, the rock is called a greensand. If magnetite and ilmenite pre¬
dominate, the rock is blacksand. If there is a predominance of dark

3 Lonsdale, Metz and Halbouty (1931); Woods (1934), page 48; Wendler (1934), page 94.

86

Texas Journal of Science

ferromagnesian silicates, the sand is a greywacke. If the sand grains are
composed of calcite, the rock is a granular limestone. In southeastern
New Mexico, there are brilliant white sands of gypsum. On the Hawaiian
Islands are black sands of basaltic rock. On the shores of coral reefs are
coralline sands. Parts of the Greenland ice cap and glaciers elsewhere
are covered with sands composed of ice.

Few fossils are found in sands. This is partly because sand bottoms
are a poor environment of life, a poor biocoenose, due to the sub-aqueous
“sandstorms” of shifting currents. Nevertheless, a few crabs, sand
dollars, sand hoppers, sand fleas, pelecypods and gastropods may be
found. Scavengers and microbes destroy much of the organic material
which does form. Dune sands likewise are poor environments of life,
due to their shiftiness. Desert sands are formed under unfavorable tem¬
perature extremes and aridity. Deserts are environments of death,
thanatocoenose, for vertebrates, whose bleached bones are preserved by
a covering of sand, and by the low humidity. Dinosaur eggs from the
Gobi desert and dinosaur bones in sands from there and elsewhere,
attest to a preservation of at least 60 million years. Petrified wood
fragments are common in some sands and sandstones, which represent
neither the environments of life, nor death of the plant, but the environ¬
ment of deposition. Shell fragments may be found in recent sands, but
are rare in later deposits because the high permeability of sands per¬
mits leaching by moving ground waters. In general, however, sand
rocks are unfossiliferous, because they are poor environments of life,
of death, and of preservation.

The cements that fill the voids and bind the grains of a sand may
constitute up to 35 percent by weight of a sandstone, although cement
usually constitutes only between 10 and 20 percent of a moderately
indurated stone. The most common cementing materials are the iron
oxides and hydrates, calcium carbonate, silica and hydrous aluminum
silicates: these are in the mineral forms of hematite, limonite, calcite,
quartz and opal, and clay minerals, respectively, in most cases. The clay
binder is probably contemporaneous in deposition with the sand, or
syngenetic. The other cements may be almost contemporaneous, dia-
genetic, or introduced by ground waters long after deposition, epigenetic.
The study of cementation of sands is becoming of increasing interest to
the oil industry, since reservoir porosity is reduced by cementation,
cementation generally increases with depth and with geologic age, and
reservoirs are being sought at greater depth and greater geologic age
throughout the world, but particularly in the Gulf Coast, where several
wells have been drilled to depths in excess of three miles.

Concretions are not uncommon as a minor component of sandstones.
Concretions are bodies which have grown in place, through successive
deposition of salts carried by waters moving through the bed, upon
some nucleus. Most concretions are ferruginous, many calcareous, and
a few siliceous, for the same minerals that cement sands are deposited
as concretions, enclosing grains of the bedded rock. The iron sulfides,
pyrite and marcasite, also form concretions in sand, and barite and
phosphatic nodules are known. Concretions vary in size from barely
discernable to cannon-balls, and even tuberose ledges several hundred
feet long. Usually they are a few inches across, with a shape varying

Sands of the Texas Gulf Coast

87

from cylindrical to spheroidal, ellipsoidal, rosette, discoidal, to highly
irregular. The original nucleus of deposition is seldom found, although
the supposition is that it was a decaying piece of organic matter that
set up redox potentials in concentric zones. Crabs have been identified
as the nuclei of some concretions (Burt, 1932), and fossil leaf imprints
have been found at the center of others. Concretions are usually harder
and better cemented than the enclosing rock, and so they weather out
and stand out in surface outcrops. They have been used for local trac¬
ing of beds, and mapping of structures in the shallow Gulf Coastal plain
of Texas. They represent a local reduction of porosity, and sometimes
a “boulder bed” of hard drilling in wells down dip in the coastal plain.

The colors and lusters of sands and sandstones are definitely related
to the mineral grains, their alteration products and their cement. Quartz
is usually colorless; feldspar white or pink; mica “salt and pepper,” or
pearly spangles; calcite white; glauconite green; magnetite and ilmenite
black; ferromagnesian minerals, green, brown or black. The cement and
alteration products are usually yellow, orange, or red-brown, due to the
iron hydrates. The consequence is that most sandstones are white, buff,
or brown; a few are green, grey, or black. Their luster is usually vitre¬
ous, although it may spangle with small flakes of mica, or be dull or
earthy due to limonite or clay.

The texture of sand includes the size, shape, roundness, arrange¬
ment and surface properties of the grains. There are a wide variety of
textures, which are clues to the last agent of transport and to the
medium of deposition.

For example, the range of sand sizes, on the Wentworth-Udden
grade scale, is sub-divided:

2

mm —

1 mm _

_ Very coarse sand

1

mm —

m mm _

_ Coarse sand

V2

mm —

% mm

__ _ Medium sand

%

mm —

Vs mm _

_ Fine sand

Vs

mm —

mm _

_ Very fine sand

A sand may be sieved and the percentage of each fraction obtained.
These percentages may be shown graphically in histograms, or in the
modern cumulative frequency curve. From the graph, the average grain
size may be determined; the spread around this average size, a measure
of natural sorting of the sediment, may be calculated; finally any lack
of symmetry, or skewness, of the curve, representing the tendency of
more grains to cluster close to the average on either the finer or the
coarser side, may also be determined.

The average grain size of a sand may characterize it locally. For
example, the Carrizo sand in Frio and Atascosa Counties is reported to
be medium grained by Lonsdale, Metz and Halbouty. 4 Since five other
Eocene sand formations proved to be fine or very fine grained; these
men thought this texture might be of general correlative value, downdip
or along the strike. This did not prove to be so, however, for Woods 5
found the Carrizo sand in Wilson and Bastrop counties to be fine grained,

4 Lonsdale, Metz and Halbouty (1931). The writer drew cumulative curves of their eight

sieve analyses and found the average median to be 0.40 mm with a median range from
0.59 mm to 0.25 mm, clearly a medium grained sand.

5 Woods (1934), p. 39.

88

Texas Journal of Science

on the basis of 30 analyses. In accord with previous analyses, though,
he notes “an increase in coarseness of texture to the southwest.” Trow¬
bridge (1932) describes a medium-grained quartzite from the Carrizo
along the Nueces River, in Vavala county, and presents five sieve
analyses of the Carrizo from Webb county near the Rio Grande, of
which two have the maximum grade as medium grained sand, two
fine grained sand and one very fine grained sand.

Thus it is apparent that grain size alone is too variable to be of
long range use. However, it is of local value, in differentiating and
correlating a sand, and of general value for historical interpretation.

The spread of the grain size distribution, or “sorting,” is an indica¬
tion of the last agent that acted upon the sand. Dune deposits are highly
sorted, open bay sands are well sorted, beach sands are highly sorted,
delta sands are moderately sorted, river sands are poorly sorted, glacial
kame, esker and ice deposits are crudely sorted or unsorted. Several
simple formulae have been used to express sorting and as yet little
standardization has been attained. 6 Sorting does tell something about
the environment, but it is apparently not of correlative value.

The skewness, or asymmetry, of grain size distribution is a new
parameter of relatively untested value, yet it appears that it has environ¬
mental significance.

Although the size, spread and skewness of a single sample may not
be significant, the same parameters on a group of samples may form
the pattern of sediment environment, or may give a pattern of correla¬
tive value, as demonstrated by Krumbein in Barataria Bay, Louisiana. 7

The shape of sand grains has long been suspected of being of genetic
or correlative value, but techniques have not yet been developed to
allow general application of shape study to sands. For example, it has
been stated 8 9 and denied (Anderson, 1926) that wind can round sand
grains of smaller size than water, because water cushions impact.
Twenhofel says: “It is generally believed that, if particles are rounded
below dimensions of 0.1 mm., and the quantity is large, the rounding
was done by aeolian agencies.” 9

Many techniques have been developed by Sorby, Wentworth, Trow¬
bridge and Mortimore, Lamar, Pentland, Cox, Tickell, Tester, Hagerman,
Fisher, Szadeczky-Kardoss and others, 10 most of which, for sands, in¬
volve making a projection of the individual grains, and measuring areas,
angles, or circumscribing circles, all tedious processes. Unfortunately,
most of the methods do' not differentiate between shape and roundness,
as pointed out by Wadell (1932, 1933, 1935).

Shape has to do with the form of a grain, whether discoidal, ellip¬
soidal, spherical, cubic, prismatic, roller, pyramidal, and so forth, a
property depending on the original crystallization and cleavage. It in¬
fluences the settling velocity, because the surface area depends upon
the shape. The sphere, with smallest surface area for a given volume,

6 Krumbein and Petti john (1938), chapter 9.

7 Krumbein and Aberdeen (1937) ; Krumbein and Caldwell (1939) ; Krumbein (1939).

8 M'ackie (1897) ; Ziegler (1911) ; Galloway (1922).

9 Twenhofel (1939) ; page 230.

10 Summarized by Pettijohn in Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938), chapter 13.

Sands of the Texas Gulf Coast

89

has the highest settling velocity, and was therefore used to name the
shape function, sphericity, chosen as 1.0 for water.

Roundness, on the other hand, depends on the gradual reduction of
sharp angles along corners and edges. Rounded grains will move more
easily in the traction load. A roller shaped pebble has a low sphericity
but a high roundness. A trapezohedron of garnet sand may have a high
sphericity, but be completely angular, that is, of zero roundness.

Wendler U studied shape of grains from the basal Catahoula sand¬
stone of Fayette County by the Tester method, and concluded that they
were pointless for correlative purposes. Hagerman (1933, 1936), how¬
ever, claims that he has succeeded in stratigraphic correlation with his
techniques. More shape studies are needed.

The surface texture of sand grains has received little study, so proof
of the genetic significance of texture is lacking (Williams, 1936-37),
but opinions are not. Sherzer i2 attributes the frosting of sand grains
to aeolian action. Krumbein (1943) says: “Polish may be produced by
gentle attrition, by solution, or by the deposition of a vitreous film on
the particle. Frosting may be caused by vigorous wind scour, by solu¬
tion, or by incipient secondary growth.”

In Texas, surface texture has been used to distinguish the basal
Catahoula sandstone, known as the Chita formation, from other for¬
mations. Plummer is describes the “rice sands” of the Chita composed
of polished translucent quartz grains, sub-angular to subrounded, with
their angularity decreasing with increasing size of grains.

Much might be learned by conscientious study of the surface tex¬
ture of sands of the Texas Gulf Coast.

The arrangement of grains in a sand has received little attention,
except for the theoretical consideration of the packing of equal sized
spheres, in which it has been pointed out that the porosity can vary
from 47.64% to 25.95%, depending upon whether square or rhombic
packing is attained (Graton and Fraser, 1935).

The fabric of sands may conceivably be a fertile field of investi¬
gation, with practical results in determining currents and agents of the
ancient environments, and the relation of fabric to storage and migra¬
tion of oil. Orientation analysis is amenable to graphical treatment, but
new techniques await development before data can accumulate. 14

The porosity of a sand or sandstone is the percentage of pore space
in the total volume of rock. It is one of the mass properties, dependent
upon size, shape, sorting, packing and cementation of the grains. The
pore space determines the volume of oil or water that may be stored
in a sandstone reservoir. The oil companies have determined porosity
along with permeability in their laboratory analyses, but this informa¬
tion has, in general, not been published. Downdip porosities of the
Wilcox sandstone at depths from 7,630 to 10,150 feet average 197, with
a variation from 7% to 23%, as recorded from 14 wells by Culbertson
(1940). According to Todd and Roper (1940), the producing Sparta sands
show porosities averaging 18 to 20%.

11 Wendler (1934), page 140.

12 Scherzer (1910), page 640.

13 Sellards, Adkins and Plummer (1932).

14 Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938), chapter 10.

90

Texas Journal of Science

The permeability of a sand is the ease with which it transmits
fluids. A simple formula for permeability, P, used by ground water
engineers, is

Q is the volume of fluid flowing in unit time.

I is the hydraulic gradient (loss of head per unit
length).

A is the cross-sectional area.

The average laboratory permeability of the Wilcox sands is 156
millidarcys in the determination of Culbertson (op. cit.) and of the
Sparta sands 400 millidarcys according to Todd and Roper (op. cit.)
On large cores of the unconsolidated Queen City sand from Bastrop
County, Plummer and Tapp (1943) achieved a radial permeability of
1,936 millidarcys averaged from 7 samples.

Ground water engineers and geologists now make accurate trans-
missibility tests (permeability x saturated formation thickness) of
aquifers by the drawdown and recovery of a pumped water well
(Wenzel, 1942). Such tests in the Houston district give a transmissibility
average of 145,000 gallons per day per foot for six new wells in the
Southwest field producing from multiple sands (probably Lissie)
screened at depths between 550 and 1,500 feet (Lang, 1946).

A strange result of high transmissibility is quicksand. Quicksand
at the surface has been known to engulf horses, cattle, sheep, hogs,
human beings, and even a train which jumped a bridge near Pueblo,
Colorado in 1875. Quicksand in building foundations is a difficult nui¬
sance, and quicksand in shallow wells is a problem in casing and cement¬
ing off. Quicksand has been attributed to rounded sand grains, and to
a shift from loose pack to close pack of the grains, but the most lucid
explanation is the Hazen 15 theory that quicksand is formed by the
upward movement of water of a spring, which lifts the grains apart.
This explains, also, why quicksands are mostly fine-grained, since
upwelling water is seldom strong enough to separate a medium or coarse
grained sand. It explains, too, why sands in the hollows and draws are
quick only during the wet seasons, as a rule.

Burt (1927) writes of seasonal quicksands in the creek bottoms of
Brazos County, Texas, and they are undoubtedly common in other
parts of the coastal plain. What loss they cause the Texas ranchmen
is not known.

The specific gravity of quartz, the chief component of sand, is 2.63.
However, the bulk density of sandstone in gms/cc varies from 1.4 to
2.7, and averages 2.4. 16 Since this is about the average of rocks as a
whole, it indicates that by itself sandstone causes no gravitational
anomaly, and will not be detected by gravity instruments, except as it
is thrown in structural contrast with low-gravity salt, or high gravity
igneous rocks.

Furthermore, the magnetic susceptibility of sandstones is incon¬
spicuous, being about 15 x IQ-6-17 Therefore, no magnetic anomaly is

15 Hazen (1900); Smith (1946), 1946a, 1947, 1947a).

16 Heiland (1940), pp. 75, 83.

17 Heiland (1940), p. 312.

Sands of the Texas Gulf Coast

91

detected from sandstones except as they conform to magnetic structures.

Sonic velocities of sands in feet per second vary from about 1640 to
3280, and of sandstones from 3,000 to 14,000. For the Texas Gulf Coast,
the Upper Miocene varies from 7,874 to 8,858 ft./see., while the Middle
Eocene is 13,780 ft./sec. 18 Further study of sandstone velocities in the
Gulf Coast might be molded after the Cooperative Well Velocity Sur¬
veying Group of California (Olson, 1941).

Resistivities in ohm-cm. of sands vary from 10,000 to 100,000 and of
sandstones from 3,500 to 400,000. 19 These are averages from outside the
Gulf Coast, and it would be interesting to compare tabulations of
resistivities for the many sands found in the Gulf Coast. This is, of
course, done every day in offices of oil companies, where electric logs
are correlated over many sections and fields.

The radioactivity of sands has recently become important, chiefly
in determining the location of sandstones on a radioactivity log. Russell
(1944) has found from Geiger — counter determinations of gamma ray
activity of 510 sedimentary rocks, the following average, measured in
radium equivalents of 10-12 grams of radium per gram of rock: shale
12.0, sandstone 4.1, and limestone 3.1. This radioactivity is due to potas¬
sium and to members of the uranium-radium and thorium series. The
potassium is present in feldspar, mica and glauconite. Rare monazite
or carnotite sands may be more radioactive.

Structures of sands are the large features of deposition and de¬
formation which sands exhibit. Bedded structures predominate, al¬
though sands are occasionally massive. The sands may be cross bedded:
irregular and high angle, indicating wind agency; even and low angle
indicating water agency. Sands may be lenticular, as in deltas. They
may wedge-out, to form important stratigraphic traps, like the great
East Texas oilfield, formed on the wedge-out of the Woodbine Cretace¬
ous sand. Faulting may form reservoir traps in sand. Folding may dome
sandstone, or arch it into a closed trap. Sandstone dikes may intrude
and fill fissures. Shore and bodies, such as beaches, bars, spits and
tombolos, may become important oil traps (Brewer, 1928).

The geological environments of sand deposition are chiefly desert,
river, littoral and delta. 29 The sources of sand are chiefly the granitoid
igneous rocks, the gneissoid metamorphic rocks, and older sands and
conglomerates. The agents are chiefly water currents for the coarse,
medium and fine sands, and wind and water currents for the very fine
sand. Deposition depends on the settling velocity, a modification of
Stokes’ law, that settling velocity is proportioned to the square of the
nominal radius of the grain. Sorting of sand, therefore, takes place, ac¬
cording to size, according to specific gravity, and according to shape.

Post-depositional changes of sand may be diagenetic or epigenetic,
and they involve compaction, cementation, with reduction of porosity
and permeability, and the growth of concretions.

The areal distribution of sands and sand-stones in the Texas Gulf
Coastal Plain is shown on the geologic map. The persistence of most of

18 Heiland (1940), p. 470.

19 Heiland (1940), pp. 662, 664.

20 Twenhofel (1939), chapter 3.

92

Texas Journal of Science

, NW SE

H O

s 1 I i

g < 2 o

* 3 5

SANDS OF THE TEXAS GULF COAST

these sands along the whole arching strike of 500 miles is indeed re¬
markable. The Carrizo sand, the Sparta sand, and the Lissie sands, for
example, are remarkably persistent. True, there are some sands which
are highly lenticular, for example, the sand lentils of the deltaic Wilcox
and Yegua, which are interbedded with shales and lignite.

The vertical distribution of the sands is suggested by the diagram¬
matic cross-section, figure 1, taken on a southeast line from Austin to
Matagorda, which illustrates the approximate outcrop sequence along
the Colorado River from the Edwards Plateau to its outlet into the
Gulf of Mexico. Horizontal control is furnished by outcrop boundaries
on the geologic map of Texas, and vertical control is taken for the
Yegua formation on to the coast from the electric logs of deep wells
interpreted by Deussen and Owen (1939).

This diagram emphasizes only the sands; the shales comprise the
intervening white areas, except those of the Cretaceous formations
below the Eocene, which are marls, chalks, limestones and dolomites
as well. The vertical exaggeration of the diagram is considerable:
actually the surface dips are only 1° to 2°, and the subsurface probably
seldom more than 5°.

The prevailing dip is gulfward, and suggests that a huge earth basin
is in the process of filling. This basin has been called the Gulf Coast
geosyncline by Barton, 21 who believed that the subsidence is due to the
sedimentation, and the sea deposits overlap the margin when subsidence
is more rapid. This idea has been challenged by Sheets (1948), who

21 Barton, Ritz and Hickey (1933).

Sands of the Texas Gulf Coast

9 3

contends that the basin has been stable since the dawn of the Cenozoic
with progressive backfilling since. The following are criteria on
which the question will resolve: if sedimentation-subsidence is true,
then the deeper sediments will have subsided far beyond initial dip,
and there should be a line of flexure, along which the rate of dip in¬
creases rapidly; if stable-filling is true, dips should be initial dips, even
though somewhat higher for the older beds, and no flexure should ap¬
pear. The diagram suggests that with our present data, the question is
not yet resolved.

In the outcrop, sands comprise about half of the area of the Texas
Gulf Coastal Plain. Since these sands grade into shales downdip, the
actual proportion of sands is estimated to be only 30 percent. Still this
is a ratio of sand about twice as great as sand usually makes among
sediments as a whole. The prominence of sand is undoubtedly due to
the persistence of delta and shore environments during coastal sedi¬
mentation.

Before a consideration of the uses of sand as a particulate substance
is made, its more important use as a reservoir must be emphasized.

In Texas, the discovery of oil and gas reservoir sands is probably
more advanced than in any area of comparable size in the world. Al¬
though thousands of wells are now producing in this area, it is esti¬
mated that an equal number remain to be discovered.

The sand aquifers of Texas yield large quantities of water: Houston,
the industrial capitol of the Texas Gulf Coast, with a population of
over a half-million, is perhaps the largest city solely supplied with water
from wells. The potential ground water yield of the sand- water reser¬
voirs of the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain is high, and the locale of future
industry and settlement will be controlled by proper exploitation of
this indispensable resource. Overpumping has already seriously affected
the underground water surface in a few areas, notably Houston itself.
Whether or not the safe yield has been exceeded is still under study.
Proper conservation will have to be applied. It is not generally known
that the location of large Army training camps, in this equable south¬
land, was in every case determined by a favorable preliminary water
investigation.

Although the reservoir uses of sands in Texas Gulf area are being
vigorously applied, the industrial uses lag. Uses of sands for abrasives,
foundry work, glass manufacture and filter sand have just recently
been investigated and applied at the Corley deposit of Wilcox age in
Freestone County (Hoeman and Redfield, 1943).

The engineering uses of sand for road metal and concrete aggregate,
are adequate at present, and for years to come, in coastal Texas.

Quicksand in foundation structures can usually be overcome by
grouting. Unfortunately, quicksand on ranches will probably never be
overcome, for if the quicksand spring is cemented off, the water will
simply take a new channel and emerge elsewhere. Livestock losses
can be reduced only by fencing off areas which are quick in the wet
season.

Texas has one of the unique uses of sand in the altered greensand
iron ore (Eckel, 1938), the basis for the nascent Lone Star steel indus-

94

Texas Journal of Science

try. This iron ore occurs in the Weches shale, between the Queen City
and Sparta sands, throughout East Texas. Grains of greensand, a potas¬
sium iron aluminum silicate, with the mineral name of glauconite,
weather in the outcrop to iron bicarbonate and clay. The iron bicarbon¬
ate is leached by ground waters and concentrated in certain beds as the
iron hydrate, limonite, a brown iron ore. Thus the iron ore is limited
in depth to the zone of carbonation, oxidation and hydration above the
water table.

The specifications of sand for various uses are summarized in the
following table from Forrester (1946):

A. No clay present.

1. Grains of uniform size. (Uniformity of size is granted if 90% approach a speci¬
fied dimension).

A, filter sand ; B, glass sand ; C, sand-blast sand ; D, stone sawyer’s sand ; E,
grinding and polishing sand ; F, carborundum manufacture ; G, potter’s sand.

2. Grains may or may not be uniform in size.

A, chemical and metallurgical sands ; B, sand which is pulverized in certain uses ;
C, traction sand ; D, sand-oil roads ; E, stucco sand ; F, roofing sand.

3. Grains not uniform in size.

A, sand-lime brick ; B, asphalt pavement and flooring sand.

B. Clay may or may not be present. If present, it is in limited or specified amounts.

I. Non-uniform in grain size.

A, black mortar sands. Maximum amount of clay present is 3% ; B, concrete
sands. Clay not over 3% by weight ; C, fire or furnace sand ; D, core sand ; E,
plaster sand, clay up to 5% permissible • F, railroad ballast sand.

C. Clay present.

1. Non-uniform in grain size.

A, sand-clay roads ; B, foundry (molding) sands. Should have 2 to 20% clay as
bonding medium. An increasing amount of so-called synthetic moulding sand is
being used. It is an artifical mixture of silica sand and a bond clay.

Our present sources and possible sources of information on sand of
the Texas Gulf Coast may be summarized in a few paragraphs.

The American Association of Petroleum Geologists publish a month¬
ly bulletin, and occasional texts, on oil reservoirs, with considerable
reference to sands of the Texas Gulf Coast.

The larger oil companies have taken many measurements of por¬
osity and permeability on sand cores in their laboratories. Much of this
information is no longer confidential, and it could possibly be collected
so that overall maps of these mass properties could be made for each
sand.

The Texas Board of Water Engineers in cooperation with the Ground
Water Division of the United States Geological Survey have published
many reports on the sand aquifers, including location of water wells,
water quality, and sand permeability.

The Bureau of Economic Geology, University of Texas, have pub¬
lished excellent bulletins on the geology and mineral uses of the sands.
The United States Geological Survey has supplemented this work.

Geophysicists have assembled a mass of information on the reflec¬
tion and refraction of sands, determining particularly the velocity of
sound in various sands, and have published a small portion of this
storehouse of fact in the journal “Geophysics.” Some release and analysis
of this data might be of interpretative value, indicating increasing ce-

Sands of the Texas Gulf Coast

95

mentation with depth, variation of hardness along the strike, channels
of cementation, and other pertinent facts.

In retrospect of these sources, it is apparent that more correlation
of acquired data is paramount. Moreover, more petrographic studies are
desirable. A few texture and heavy mineral studies were made in the
twenties and early thirties, but because too few samples were taken,
too few studies made, and statistical analysis was too undeveloped, little
was derived from this preliminary attack. The electric log, and the
Geiger counter furnish us with two new tools which can reveal much
about sands. The maps of the variation in resistivity of sands, along
strike and dip, might be illuminative. More industrial analyses of sands
should be made and recorded.

Perhaps a clearing house, a “Committee on Sands,” or a bureau on
sands would be the answer to more integrated attack on the sand prob¬
lem. Interest must be stimulated, discussion aroused, and genuine aware¬
ness achieved, on the importance of study and use of sand, before any
real program may be made.

LITERATURE CITED

Anderson, G. E* — 1926 — Experiments on the rate of wear of sand grains. J. Geol. 34 :144-158.
Barton, D. C., Ritz, C. H., and Maude Hickey — 1933 — Gulf Coast geosyncline. Bull. Amer.
Assoc. Pet. Geologists 17:1446-1458.

Brewer, Charles, Jr. — 1928 — Genetic relationships of oil reservoirs to shoreline deposits. Bull.

Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 12 :597-615.

Burt, F. A. — 1927 — The quicksands of Brazos County. J. Geol. 35 :663-669.

1932 — Formative processes in concretions formed about fossils as nuclei. J. Sed. Petrology
2:38-45.

Cogen, W. M. — 1940 — Heavy mineral zones of Louisiana and Texas Gulf C’oast sediments.

Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 24 :2069-2102.

Culbertson, J. A. — 1940 — Downdip Wilcox (Eocene) of coastal Texas and Louisiana. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 24:1919.

Deussen, Alexander, and K. D. Owen — 1939 — rCorrelation of surface and subsurface forma¬
tions in two typical sections of the Gulf Coast of Texas. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geolo¬
gists 23 :1603-1634.

Eckel, E. B. — 1938 — The brown ores of eastern Texas. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 902 :1-157.
Forrester, J. D* — 1946 — Principles of field and mining geology. John Wiley and Sons, New
York.

Galloway, J. J. — 1922 — Value of the physical characters of sand grains in interpretation of
the origin of sandstones. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 33 :104.

Grabau, A. W. — 1932 — Principle of stratigraphy. 3rd ed. A. G. Seler. New York.

Graton, L. C., and H. J. Fraser — 1935 — Packing of spheres with particular relation to por¬
osity and permeability. J. Geol. 43:805.

Hagerman, T. H. — 1932— Some lithologic methods for the determination of stratigraphic
horizons. Proc. World. Pet. Congr., London 1 :257-259.

1936 — Granulometric studies in Northern Argentine. Geografiska Annaler 18 :125-213.

Hazen, A. — 1900 — Discussion of quicksand. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 43:582.

Heiland, C. A. — 1940 — Geophysical exploration. Prentice-Hall, New York.

Hoeman, E. C. and R. C. Redfield — 1943 — Industrial sand from the Eocene Rockdale forma¬
tion in Texas. Texas Mineral Resources. Univ. Tex. Publ. 4301 :283-312.

Krumbein, W. C. — 1939 — Tidal lagoon sediments on the Mississippi delta. In “Recent Marine
sediments,” a symposium edited by P. D. Trask. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists, Tulsa.
Pp. 178-194.

1943 — Fundamental attributes of sedimentary particles. Proc. Second Hydraulics Conference,
Univ. Iowa Studies in Engineering. Bull. 27:318-331.

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Texas Journal of Science

Krumbein, W. C., and Esther Aberdeen — 1937 — The sediments of Barataria Bay. J. Sed.
Petrology 7 :3-17.

Krumbein, W. C., and L. T. Caldwell — 1939 — Areal variation of organic carbon content of
Barataria Bay sediments, Louisiana. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 23 :582-594.
Krumbein, W. C., and F. J. Pettijohn — 1938 — Manual of sedimentary petrology. D. Appleton-
Century Co. New York.

Lang, J. W. — 1946 — Ground-water resources of the Houston district, Texas. Progress report
for 1946 ; with section on results of the pumping test at the new southwest plant, by
J. W. Lang and R. W. Sundstrom. Texas Board of Water Engineers. Mimeo. Austin.
P. 27.

Lonsdale, J. T., Metz, M. S., and M. T. Halbouty — 1931 — The petrographic characters of
some Eocene sands from Southwest Texas. J. Sed. Petrology 1 :73-81.

Mackie;, W. — 1897 — On the laws that govern the rounding of particles of sand. Trans. Edin¬
burgh. Geol. Soc. 7 :298-31.

Olson, W. S.— 1941 — Seismic velocity variations in San Joaquin Valley, California. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 25 *.1343-1362,

Plummer, F. B., and P. F. Tapp — 1943 — Technique of testing large cores of oil sands. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 27 :73.

Russell, W. L. — 1944 — The total gamma ray activity of sedimentary rocks as indicated by
Geiger Counter determinations. Geophysics 9:180-216.

Scherzer, W. H. — 1910 — Criteria for the recognition of the various types of sand grains.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 21:625-662.

Sellards, E. H., Adkins, W. S., and F. B. Plummer — 1932 — The geology of Texas. Vol. I,
Stratigraphy. Bull. Univ. Texas 3232 :716.

Sheets, M. M.— 1948 — Tertiary history of the Gulf Coast geosyncline. Paper presented at the
regional meeting of the Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists, Dec. 3, 1948, Houston, Texas.
Smith, E. R. — 1946 — Sand. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 55:121.

1946a — The lifting effect of quicksand. Ohio J. Sci. 46:327.

1947 — The influence of coarseness of grain on the lifting effect in quicksand. Proc. Indiana
Acad. Sci. 56:194.

1947a — A study of the supposed suction effect of quicksand. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 56:196.
Todd, J. D., and F. C. Roper — 1940 — Sparta-Wilcox trend, Texas and Louisiana. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 24:711.

Trowbridge, A. C. — 1932 — Tertiary and Quaternary geology of the Lower Rio Grande region.
Texas. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 837:61-64.

Twenhofel, W. H.— 1939 — Principles of sedimentation. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York.
Udden, J. A. — 1898 — Mechanical composition of wind deposits. Augustana Library Publ.,
No. 1.

Wadell, Hakon — 1932 — Volume, shape and roundness of rock particles. J. Geol. 40 :443-451.
1933 — Sphericity and roundness of rock particles, J. Geol. 41 :310-331.

1935 — Volume, shape and roundness of quartz particles. J. Geol. 43 :250-280.

Wendler, A. P. — 1934 — A petrographical study of sands from Middle Tertiary formations
east of the Guadalupe River, Texas. Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. Texas, Austin.

Wentworth, C. K. — 1922 — A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. J. Geol.
30:377-392.

Wenzel, L. K. — 1942 — Methods for determining the permeability of water-bearing materials.

U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Pap. 887-77-117.

Williams, Lou — 1936-37 — Classification and bibliography of surface textures of sedimentary
fragments. Rep. Comm. Sedimentation, Nat. Res. Council. Mimeo. Pp. 114-128.

Woods, R. D. — 1934 — Petrographic examination of some sections of the Carrizo formation
in Central Texas. MS. Thesis, Univ. Tex. Austin.

Ziegler, Victor — 1911 — Factors influencing the rounding of sand grains. J. Geol. 19 :645-654.

Editorial News and Notes

97

»

EDITORIAL NEWS AND NOTES

THE EDITOR has received an invitation from the Biological Ab¬
stracts to forward to them author’s abstracts of all papers published in
the Journal. All of you are familiar with Biological Abstracts and we
are sure that you will wish to avail yourself of this service.

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ICHTHYOLOGISTS AND HERPE¬
TOLOGISTS was founded many years ago and is one of the outstanding
scientific bodies in the United States. Each year they hold an annual
convention. Last year it was in New Orleans, this year it will be in
Washington, next year, we believe, it is going to be on the West Coast.
It seems to us that this convention might well be held in Texas in 1950.
The Texas Academy of Science could well take an interest in this matter.

MR. JOEL HEDGPETH, of the Marine Institute of the University
of Texas, will spend the summer in California where he has a teach¬
ing engagement at the Pacific Marine Station, Dillon Beach, California.
Mr. Hedgpeth is engaged in working up a badly needed monograph on
the invertebrates of the Texas Coast.

THE SECTIONAL MEETING at Corpus Christi was well attended
and a number of exceedingly interesting papers were presented. The
joint meeting with the A.A.A.S. at Alpine was also well attended, and
President Eby says that there was a fine program with many excellent
papers.

THE ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP LIST of The Texas Academy of
Science, along with the reports of various officers will appear in
Volume I, Number 3, which will be out September 30.

THE MARINE LABORATORY OF THE GAME, FISH AND
OYSTER COMMISSION is making arrangements for a biannual seminar
and field study to be held at Rockport October 23 to 29, 1949 and April
23 to 29, 1950. This seminar and field study is designed to offer to
colleges and universities of the state a well rounded program twice a
year. Twenty-four hours of lecture and twenty-four hours of field
study will be planned for each session of seven days.

Tentatively, the lecture subject matter will include geology of the
coast, oceanography, engineering as applied to marine structures,
chemistry and commercial utilization of sea water, marine bacteriology,
plankton studies, coastal botany, marine invertebrates, parasitology,
pollution, ornithology, mammalogy, special subjects, physiology and
investigational methods and equipment. Lectures will be given by
specialists in the field and tentative dates have already been made with
such men as Dr. Willas G. Hewatt of Texas Christian University, Dr.
Frank Blair, Dr. O. B. Williams and Mr. Joel Hedgpeth of the University
of Texas, and Dr. W. B. Davis of Texas A & M to present lectures, and
acceptances are coming in rapidly from other outstanding men in the
various fields.

Because of the shortness of the course it will be necessary to con¬
fine the attendance to students of at least Junior standing and who are
majors in biology or some closely related field as this will eliminate

98

Texas Journal of Science

much unnecessary introductory work and will allow the lecturers to
pursue their subject directly, with a minimum of introductory material.

THE RICE INSTITUTE has extended an invitation to the Academy
to hold its annual meeting in the new Fondren Library in December.
At the Executive Council meeting held on May 23, this invitation was
accepted by President Eby and the council.

DR. C. M. POMERAT, executive vice president of the Academy
and head of the tissue culture laboratory at the Texas University School
of Medicine, is leaving this summer for an extensive trip through
Europe.

DR. L. W. BLAU has kindly consented to edit The Texas Journal of
Science, during June, while Mr. Baughman is absent. Mr. Baughman
will attend the Oyster Convention at Old Point Comfort, Virginia and
then visit a number of the eastern laboratories.

DR. THOMAS KNIGHT CHAMBERLAIN, of the Division of Fish¬
ery Biology, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the In¬
terior, has been assigned to headquarters at Stillwater, Oklahoma,
where he will have his office with the Oklahoma Cooperative Wildlife
Research Unit. Dr. Chamberlain, working on problems connected with
large water impoundments in Oklahoma under the joint supervision of
the Oklahoma Game and Fish Council and the Fish and Wildlife Service,
is also serving as Assistant Unit Leader, Oklahoma Cooperative Wild¬
life Research Unit. He has also been appointed assistant professor in
the Department of Zoology at Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical
College.

THE MARINE LABORATORY OF THE TEXAS GAME, FISH AND
OYSTER COMMISSION has recently added Mr. William L. Haskell,
Mr. A. W. Anderson and Miss Cecelia Wright to its staff. Mr. Haskell, a
graduate of Oregon State College, will be occupied with a survey of the
shell and oyster resources of the state; Mr. Anderson, a graduate of
Texas University, with an economic survey of fisheries and Miss Wright,
a graduate of Our Lady of the Lake, will be laboratory assistant. Mr.
Joseph P. Breuer, of A. & M. and Robert J. Kemp, of Texas University,
will also work for the summer on the menhaden project, Mr. Breuer
at Port Arthur and Mr. Kemp at Port Aransas.

Texas Journal of Science

99

DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION
OF MANUSCRIPTS

1. Manuscripts should be submitted to The Editor, Texas Journal
of Science, Box 867, Rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to
minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of
the Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced
with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small
type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction
than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some
authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬
cult to make the necessary editorial corrections.

2. Each manuscript must be accompanied by two copies of an
abstract, not more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the
editorial board finds it advisable, the abstract may be published instead
of the paper. If the paper can be much improved or condensed the
editor may return it for such changes.

3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: —

Title

Name of Author
Affiliation of Author
Body of Paper
Bibliography

4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically
at the end of the article, without numerical designation. References in
the text should be by author’s name and date of publication.

The use of footnotes should be avoided wherever possible. These
are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as they
have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased
time and raises costs.

5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: —

Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex.

J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs, 2 pis.

- - - : — - - 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography.

Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs, 3 pis, 2 maps.

- 1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a

bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis.

The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier
for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and
page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all.

6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the
Academy publishing budget. However, for the present it is desirable
that they be kept at a minimum. All illustrations should be in black
and white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper
and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬
trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should
be precise and included with the drawing and illustration.

100

Texas Journal of Science

7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, it pos¬
sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography.
Printing tables is very expensive.

8. Arrangements are being made with the publisher to furnish
three sets of proofs to the editor so that one may be sent to the author
for proof reading before publication. However, until we are able to get
a sufficient mass of type set ahead, it will be very necessary to return
this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have
to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted
on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that
extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has
been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be
made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author.

9. Arrangements are being made to furnish reprints. The follow¬
ing schedule of prices will apply, subject to change. They are identical
with those charged by Copeia, the official Journal of the American
Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. It will be necessary for a
check to accompany orders for reprints, which may be returned with
the proof. This, of course, does not apply to institutional orders, but
only to Academy members ordering personal copies. This keeps book¬
keeping at a minimum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor.
It is felt that this is the most desirable way to handle the matter despite
the fact that in the past it has been the custom, for the editor to obtain
the reprints from the publisher and then collect from the individual
member.

100 Copies

On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper

1 Page 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12

Pages Pages Pages

4.62 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84

Each Additional 100 Copies
1.58 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91

10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s
affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts.

Publications Committee

J. L. Baughman, Editor
L. W. Blau
John G. Sinclair
J, Brian Eby

12 to 16
Pages
15.40

5.81

Texas Journal of Science

101

Professional Directory

J. BRIAN EBY

Consulting Geologist

1404 Esperson Bldg.

Charter 44776 Houston, Tex.

JOHN S. IVY

Geologist

1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas

LEONARD J. NEUMAN

Registered Professional Engineer

Geological and Geophysical Surveys
Petroleum Engineering Reports
Houston, Texas

Geophysics Office Engineering Office

943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705
Ph. Fairfax 7086

PETTY GEOPHYSICAL

ENGINEERING COMPANY

Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys

317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas i

LEO HORVITZ

Geochemical Prospecting

Horvitz Research Laboratories

Houston, Texas

Ph. Keystone 35545 3217 Milam Street

HUDNALL & PIRTLE

Geologists

James S. Hudnall 510 Peoples Bank Bldg.
George W. Pirtle TYLER, TEXAS

G. J. Loetterle 615 Alamo National Bldg.

A. Bart Brown SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

MICHEL T. HALBOUTY

Consulting

Geologist and Petroleum Engineer

Shell Building

Houston 2, Texas Phone P-6376

E. E. ROSAIRE

Prospecting for Petroleum

DALLAS, TEXAS

SHERMAN NELSON

! — OIL —

1 Royalty - — Leases

Seguin, Texas

H. KLAUS

Geologist |

KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY

Lubbock, Texas

; WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR.

Consulting Geologist

2101-03 Alamo National Building

SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS

Consulting Geologists

Appraisals Reservoir Engineers

DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON

Continental Building 1

DALLAS, TEXAS

102

Texas Journal of Science

The extra quality of this
fine gasoline is revealed in use.

An automobile engine operating on Humble Esso
Extra gasoline gives noticeably better performance.
You notice extra anti-knock quality; you feel extra
power; and when a mechanic takes the head off the
engine, he sees that the patented solvent oil in Esso
Extra has kept the engine extra clean.

Esso Extra is a premium gasoline. It costs a few
cents more to fill a gasoline tank with Esso Extra
than with a regular-grade gasoline, but this small
extra cost is repaid in extra performance. Try Esso
Extra in your car. You’ll agree that Esso Extra gives
you something extra for your money.

HUMBLE OIL b REFINING CO.

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ELECTRICAL TESTING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

* Century is the world’s largest manufacturer of geophysical and special galvanometers

CENTURY GEOPHYSICAL CORPORATION

1333 North Utica — Tulsa, Okla., U. S. A.

Export: 149 Broadway, New York

Texas Journal of Science

103

HAMMAN OIL & REFINING CO.

HOUSTON BAY CITY

BLUME SYSTEM TREE EXPERTS

“Costs Less Than Mistakes”

Phone Hadley 2114-2115 2736 Virginia

HOUSTON 6, TEXAS

ftyjlMPERMEX MAKES GOOD MUD FOR BAD CONDITION

IMPERMEX, Baroid’s organic colloidal material, provides superior drillin
muds in spite of the presence of such contaminants as salt, anhydrite, gypsurr
and cement. Operators have found it unexcelled, for drilling through zone
which might cause the discard of ordinary drilling fluids.

IMPERMEX has long served the industry as a means of providing muds wit
marvelous filtration properties particularly useful for completion work, it find
more and more application in zones where its extremely low water loss, thiij
filter cake, and resistance to contamination enable the operator to dril
ahead with a minimum of trouble, loss of time, and damage to the formation
IMPERMEX makes any clay mud a better mud, whether mixed with fresf;
water or brine. In some areas the employment of IMPERMEX muds has become
standard practice. Many deep high-pressure wells have been drilled success
fully largely because the use of IMPERMEX has produced workable mods ol
extremely high density, thin filter cake, and low water loss.

Let the Baroid service engineer in your district show you how IMPERMEX
can save you time and trouble in your wells.

CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS

President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Editors : J. L. Baughman, L. W. Blau, J. G. Sinclair
Human health, hygiene and public health :

C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices.

C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin
Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos
Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities:

Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin
Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc.:

L. S. Paine, Department of Economies, A. and M. College, College Station
Cocouncillors :

Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station
Miss Francis M'oon, Department Public Welfare, Houston
Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin
Raul Cortez, Race relations, San Antonio
Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Young scientific talent:

C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Cocouncillors :

Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M.

High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston
Conservation education and publicity. Public relations.

J. W. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin
Cocouncillors :

Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum, Dallas
Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin
Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M.

Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth

Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin
UNESCO. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston
Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls.

J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Food quality and responsible factors.

L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston
Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops.

Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas

Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. - - - - — -

Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. ........ . . . . . . .

Marine resources.

J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and 0y3ter Commission, Rockport
Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges.

B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton.

Cocouncillors :

Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin
Forest and range. Forests as lumber.

Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station
Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio
Underground water and rivers.

Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston
Oil and gas.

William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin

Sulphur . . . . . . . . . .

Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative.

F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin
Metals

Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston
Paleontological collections.

Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin
Archeological collections.

T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin

PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workers
together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the
government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities.
ORGANIZATION : The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior
Academy, there are five Sections: Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and
Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas,
South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the! organization of science
clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in
secondary schools.

MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of
science” is eligible to membership.

PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly, the first issue to appear
March, 1949. Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters.
MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the
spring of each year.

DUES: Annual members, $2.00 per year. Life members, at least $60.00 in one payment.

Sustaining Members, $6.00 per year. Patrons, at least $600.00 in one payment.

Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate
as active members.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Members $1.50 per year; Sustaining Members $3.75 per year.

U, 3. National Museum
Smithsonian Institution
7?„ L. Corbin, Librarian
"/ashington, D. C.

>

RECORD PRINT, SAN MARCOS, TEX.

)

0 <<

TEXAS JOURNAL

SCIENCE

Volume 1, Number 3 Published Quarterly at

September 80, 1949 San Marcos, Texas

Application for Entry as Second-Class Matter Pending, Act of Aug. 24, 1912

CONTENTS

Water— -An Industrial Necessity. Paul Weaver -

Soil and Water Conservation — An Economic and

Social Necessity. Roy L. Donahue . . - . .

The Conservation of Potential Science Talent Among

Our Young People. Joseph Albright . . - . .

A Physical Method to Evaluate Body Volume Specific Gravity
and Fat Concentration of Animals in Vivo. Harry C. Dyme

Coastal Drainage Problems in Relation to Waterfowl.

John R. Singleton _ _ i - -

The North American Species of Macrobrachium

(River Shrimp). Joel W. Hedgpeth _

Food Studies of Black Crappie Fry ( Pomoxia nigro-maculatm)
H. C. Sivells _ - _ _ _ — - -

A Summary of New Butterflies from Texas, H, A. Freeman.

Notes on Fiome Ranges and Population Density of Two Species
of Heteromyid Rodents in Southwestern Texas.

Christopher L, York _ _ — . . . . . — . . .

(Continued on Page One)

CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS
OF THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1949)

President

J. Brian Eby

Geologist, Esperson Bldg.

Houston

Ex. Vice President

C. M. Pomerat

Medical, Br., U. of T.

Galveston

Secretary -Treasurer

Gladys H. Baird

Social Sciences

Huntsville

Im. Past President

L. W. Blau

Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Houston

Editor

J. L. Baughman

Marine La., G.F.O.C.

Rockport

Pres. Conserv. Coun.

J. G. Sinclair

Medical Br., U. of T.

Galveston

Rep. to A.A.A.S.

C. D. Leake

Dean, Medical Br., U. of T.

Galveston

V. President, Sec. I, Physical

Newton Gaines

Physics, Texas Christian U.

Fort Worth

V. Pres. Sec. II, Biological

Gordon Gunter

Marine Inst., Univ. Tex.

Port Aransas

V. Pres. Sec. Ill, Social

Frank E. Luksa

Sociology, Southwestern

Georgetown

V. Pres. Sec. IV, Geological

S. A. Lynch

Geology, A. & M. College

College Station

V. Pres. Sec. V, Conservation

Paul H. Walser

Soil Conserv. Serv.

Temple

Collegiate Academy Charles La Motte

Biology, A. & M. College

College Station

Junior Academy

Greta Oppe

Chemistry, Ball Senior High

Galveston

BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1949)

President

J. Brian Eby

Geologist

Houston

Ex. Vice President

C. M. Pomerat

Medical Br., U. of T.

Galveston

Secretary -Treasurer

Gladys H. Baird

Social Sciences

Huntsville

Im. Past-President

L. W. Blau

Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Houston

Elected Director

E. P. Cheatum

Biologist, S.M.U.

Dallas

Elected Director

J. C. Godbey

Chemistry, Southwestern U.

Georgetown

Elected Director W. Armstrong Price

Geologist

Corpus Christi

BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1949)

Beauford Jester

W. R. Woolrich, Dean

J. Brian Eby

Governor of Texas

Engineering, University of Texas Consulting Geologist

Austin

Austin

Houston

E. D. DeGolyer

0.

S. Petty

L. W. Blau

Consulting Geologist

Petty Geophysical Company Humble Oil & Ref. Co.

Dallas

San

Antonio

Houston

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Chairman — George E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons
Paul C.Witt, Chemistry, Abilene Christian
Alpine

G P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross
Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross
Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T.

Ronald K. DeFord, Geology, U. of T.
Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar
Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology,

Mary Hardin-Baylor
Brown wood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne
College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M.
Commerce

Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E.T.S.T.C.
Corpus Christi

W. Armstrong Price, Geologist, Box 1860
I^eIIes

E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S. M. U.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy,

4440 Beverly Dr.

Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical
Hardy Kemp, Southwestern Medical

Denton

B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C.

Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W.

Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U.

Galveston

C. M'. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T.

Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U.
Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T.
Huntsville

Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C,
Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I.
Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology,

Texas Tech

J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech
Arthur W Young, Agronomy,

Texas Tech
Nacogdoches

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography,
S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer,

Incarnate Word

Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.S.T.C.
Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton
Hugh B. Smith, Biology, John Tarleton

Waco

W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor
Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor

CONTENTS — continued

The Physical and Vegetational Basis for Animal Distribution
in the Sierra Vieja Range of Southwestern Texas.

Christopher L. York _ ____ _ 46

Shelled Mollusks of the Texas Coast from Galveston to Port
Aransas. T. E. Pulley _ _ _ 62

Early Plant Collections Return to Texas. Lloyd H. Shinners- 69

Acclimitization of a Marine Free-Living Ciliate (Oxthrichidae)
to Lower Osmotic Pressure. Robert Anigstein _ 71

Micro-organisms in Beermeters. j. N. Stern _ _ 76

Application of Some Biogenetic Laws to Stratigraphy.

A. A. L. Mathews ___. _ _ _ _ 78

Measuring Instruments and Their Use. Arthur E. Lockenvitz 81

A New Thermodynamic Criterion at the Critical Point of
Matter. R. Plank and L. Riedel _ _ _ 86

Radioactive Tracers in Chemical Research. L. O. Morgan _ 100

Biochemical Application of Tracers. Wiktor W. Nowinski____ 102

Application of Tracers in Biology and Genetics.

Robert P. Wagner _ _ _ 106

The Use of Tracers in the Field of Medicine. Allen F. Reid____ 109

Liquid Helium the Fourth State of Matter. C. F. Squire _ 112

Indium-Chrome Film Behavior as Revealed by the Electron
Microscope. Leland L. Antes _ 115

The Effect of the Bacteria Vibrio Desulfuricans
on the Permeability of Limestone Cores.'

Oliver D. O’Bryan and Ta-Wei David Ling _ _ _ 117

Ultrasonic Velocity in Beryllium at Very Low Temperatures.

W. C. Overton, Jr.______ _ _ _ : _ _ 128

The Disintegration of Carbon by Deuterons. G. C. Phillips _ 134

The Flame Propagation Velocities of Air-Propane Mixtures
in a Controlled Turbulence Bunsen Burner. H. J. Buttner,

F. W. Bowditch and W. W. Floyd _ _ _ _ 136

A Search for a Basis of Peace and Human Security.

H. H. Holm _ ... _ _ _ 140

Membership List _ _ 149

Editorial News and Notes _ _ 177

Vol. I

The Texas Journal of Science

September 30, 1949

No. 3

WATER— AN INDUSTRIAL NECESSITY
Paul Weaver

Chief, Geophysical Department
Gulf Oil Corporation
Houston, Texas

Water is basic to industry in two ways: first, there must be people to
run the plant, and these people usually live in large groups, so that water is
needed not only domestically, but also for group purposes, usually called
public or municipal. Secondly, there are the requirements for water in the
processes carried on in the plant.

There are several factors of quality of water which must be considered
for each of these two main demands: For group use, we have two kinds:
( 1 ) domestic, which should "be clear, free of toxic materials, safe from a
bacteriological standpoint, pleasant tasting, and relatively low in mineral
content” (2) service use, which includes fire protection, street cleaning,
cooling, and some cultivation, as on golf courses and parks. Service use does
not require as high a quality as domestic use, but in most communities, it is
uneconomical to have two separate supply and distribution systems, so that
there is usually only one supply, and therefore it is necessary that the quality
be satisfactory for domestic use.

Conservation could be introduced in this field of group use, by having
a supply of less desirable quality for the service uses. This would require
duplicate supply systems, and is not really necessary, if the effluent from
the public system is properly handled, so that it can be available for use
again downstream. Most of the water from such a system goes to a sewage
treatment plant, and therefore is properly treated.

What is the measure of demand of this kind of water? The average use
in East Texas public systems in towns which do not supply special industries
is about 45 gallons per capita per day, but as cooling systems become more
generally used, this demand will increase, particularly if there be used evap¬
orative systems. The amount of water required for cooling depends much
upon the temperature of the water supply, as well as upon the air tempera¬
ture and humidity. A conservation of this cooling water will be effected
by the most efficient systems, but at a considerably larger cost than desert
cooler types. It seems very likely that with increase in comfort in offices
and homes, and with greater use of sprinkling systems in cleaning streets,
public use even in the smaller Texas towns may soon exceed 100 gallons per
capita, or about double present average rate, but it should be remembered
that most of this water will re-appear in the sewage collection plants, and
that it is not a net use.

For the industrial plants themselves, the quality of water required is
also in part of a high order. Water is used in boilers, in the cooling of heat
(exchangers, in the processes themselves; there are also maintenance opera-

4

The Texas Journal of Science

tions such as cleaning, fire protection, and air-conditioning, which corres¬
pond to service uses in cities.

For industrial water, objectionable qualities of water are: "high hard¬
ness, excessive qualities of organic matter, high bacterial counts, abnormal
pH values, and high salt content.” In some uses in the plant, the incoming
temperature of the water should be constant and low, which accounts for
the preference so frequently shown in Texas to the use of water directly
from wells instead of from surface supplies.

The quantity required is dependent principally upon two factors: (1)
the amount needed for steam in the boiler plant, and (2) the amount actu¬
ally used in the industrial process itself, where the property of water most
useful is its solvent and diluting effect. Every industrial process, and they
are legion in the chemical industry, which requires that a substance be
treated first with an alkali and then with an acid, or vice-versa, usually
involves the use of water as a solvent; there is left in the water all of the
acid or the alkali removed from the substance, thereby resulting in the
pollution of the water so that it is not generally available for further use,
and in some cases so that it is a nuisance when delivered into natural water
courses. Therefore, use of water in the industrial process may be considered
a consumptive use, if the effuent is unfit for other use. In many plants, the
water is so dilute that it is still suitable for use, and therefore its employ¬
ment is non-consumptive. The dilution is great enough in many plants to
account for the very large volumes reported in some industries, such as
65,000 gallons per ton of steel. Although such quantities pass into the steel
plant, most is delivered out in a dilution still suitable for some other, use.
We need to have statistics, not only of volume of water required to deliver
into our industrial plants in Texas, but of the volume of usable water out
of the plant, before we have the true picture. If water is subsequently
treated, instead of merely diluted, conservation will be greater.

The volumes required in industrial manufacture in Texas have never
been tabulated, but some figures per capita of population in the industrial
areas, including both domestic and industrial use, are available. Houston
now uses daily about 13 3 gallons per capita, Texas City about 1100, Tri-
Cities about 2600.

I believe that for an industrialized area, about 400 gallons should be
provided for, and if the industry is mostly chemical, about 1,000 gallons
per capita per day.

What is being done to make inventories to determine where these
quantities are available? Governor Jester has called five water conferences
during the past year: West Texas area, held at Big Spring, January 20, 1948;
East Texas, held at Tyler, May 21, 1948; Central Texas, held at Waco,,
July 8, 1948; South Texas, at Corpus Christi, August 13, 1948; and Gulf
Coast, at Houston, October 20, 1948. At these meetings, the State Board
of Water Engineers, State Health Department, Fish, Game & Oyster Com¬
mission, the United States Geological Survey’s division of water resources,
municipal, water districts and private industrial users have all contributed
to the discussion.

To effect the greatest use of all water supplies, there must be the
sound adjudication of water rights, the determination of beneficial use under
these rights, and the scientific authorization of proper operation of the en-

Water — An Industrial Necessity

5

gineering works which gather, store, and distribute the water; finally, the
treatment of the water after use to minimize consumptive use, and to make
available for further use water used non-consumptively. The Texas Water
Conservation Commission has been reviewing the laws of Texas and other
Western States, to determine what changes in present laws will help in the
program just enumerated, and during this year has prepared a new surface
water code, and is studying a new underground water code. (See Editor’s
note below). Important engineering works which are vital to further use
of all of our water have been considered in these new codes, and include:

( 1 ) Storage of flood water. Present legislation is primarily concerned
only with normal stream flow. Although these works are of great value
when the storage is in reservoirs, it must be remembered that in Texas the
rate of evaporation from water bodies is high; also because of the frequency
of heavy rainfall, erosion of exposed lands results in siltation down stream in
the reservoirs.

Artificial underground recharge into ground water reservoirs is an
alternative to surface storage, and is assuming importance in our national
picture. Dr. Sayre expressed the present view: "Although artificial recharge
is not everywhere feasible, and in many places is not necessary or practi¬
cable under present conditions, it has been eminently successful in a number
of places where it has been attempted. It is believed that as the use of water
approaches the available supply . . . artificial recharge will assure increasing
importance in our national economy.”

(2) Construction of wells so that they prevent inter-connection from
underground strata at several levels and with the surface.

(3 Operation of wells so that operating levels are not greatly below
static levels, both for prevention of lower more mineralized water entering
the well, and to assure against subsidence.

(4) Minimizing transmission losses in canals, water mains, and sewers.

( 5 ) Use of water not of a quality for general domestic and industrial
use for special purposes where high quality water is not imperative.

The decision to embark on some of these types of water engineering
will depend very definitely on the adequate adjudication of the property
rights and other State authorizations which are involved, and the codes
are being drafted with this in mind. Secondly, it will depend on the com¬
plete assemblage of data of rainfall, humidity, evaporation, stream flow, and
water yields from wells, as well as the complete coverage of the State of
Texas by soil and geological surveys.

Great educational value has been the result of the efforts of the State
Board of Health, the Fish, Game and Oyster Commission in the field of
pollution and contamination; surveys by the United States Geological Sur¬
vey, the Reclamation Service, the Army Engineers, and the State Board of
Water Engineers are increasing the basic data, but much remains to be done
before we have an inventory of Texas water.

(Editor’s Note: The 51st Legislature did not pass any of the recom¬
mended laws, except one providing for the creation of artificial underground
recharge districts on a local option basis. (House Bill No. 162). The Legis¬
lature, however, recognized the importance of modifications to the present
laws, and set up a special interim committee to study the entire field of water
legislation. (Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 36).)

6

The Texas Journal of Science

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION— AN ECONOMIC
AND SOCIAL NECESSITY

Roy L. Donahue
Extension Agronomist

Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas

It is essential that people, both rural and urban, have adequate incomes.
Rural and urban income is derived in a large part from the primary and
secondary products of the soil — primary products such as corn, and secondary
or manufactured products such as corn starch. As productivity of the soil
decreases, incomes shrink. As incomes decline, as a consequence of reduced
productiveness of the land — so often due to soil neglect — the farmers and
city people both suffer. Thus we see the ultimate effect of a chain of cir¬
cumstances initiated by rain drops beating bare soil into mud puddles, caus¬
ing erosion, soil depletion, reduced yields, less grass for the cattle, lower
incomes, and more misery.

For generations, agricultural and social leaders throughout the South
have witnessed a farm economy based on the production of a single cash
crop such as cotton or tobacco. Under a cotton economy, the South pros¬
pered in former generations; but, as necessity forced farmers to bring into
cultivation even steeper hillsides and poorer soils, they were utilizing to
the limit — even to destruction — their greatest asset, the topsoil.

It is apparent to anyone who has studied the soil that there is a definite
relationship between the productivity of the land and the welfare of people.
Let the good earth produce! This kinship with its attendant responsibilities
of man and soil is aptly stated in this manner:

The Earth is the mother of us all — plants, animals, and men. The
phosphorus and calcium of the earth build our skeletons and nervous sys¬
tems. Everything else our bodies need except air and sun comes from the
earth.

"Nature treats the earth kindly. Man treats her badly. Ele overplows
the croplands, overgrazes the pastureland, and overcuts the timberland. He
destroys millions of acres completely. He pours fertility year after year into
the cities, which in turn pour what they do not use down the sewers into
the rivers and the ocean. The flood problem insofar as it is man-made is
chiefly the result of over-plowing, overgrazing, and overcutting of timber.

This terribly destructive process is excusable in a young civilization.
It is not excusable in the United States in the year 193 8. We know what
can be done and we are beginning to do it. As individuals we are beginning
to do the necessary things. As a nation, we are beginning to do them. The
public is waking up, and just in time. In another 3 0 years it might have
been too late.

The social lesson of soil waste is that no man has the right to destroy
soil even if he does own it in fee simple. The soil requires a duty of man
which we have been slow to recognize.

In this book the effort is made to discover man’s debt and duty to the
soil. The scientists examine the soil problem from every possible angle. This
book must be reckoned with by all who would build a firm foundation for
the future of the United States.

For my own part I do not feel that this book is the last word. But it

Soil and Water Conservation

7

is a start and a mighty good start in helping all those who truly love the
soil to hght the good fight.”"'

In the sound track of his American documentary film, "The Land,”
Robert Flaherty puts the whole thing very simply: "If the soil does not have
it in it, the plants that grow there do not, or the animals that eat those
plants, or the people who eat those plants and animals.”

THE SOIL CONTROLS THE BODY. HUMAN DEFICIENCIES POINT THE WAY BACK.

TO THE SOIL, NOT TO THE DRUGSTORE.

Milk is no better than the feed- the cow has eaten. The amount of cal¬
cium in a lettuce leaf may vary as much as sixty-fold, depending on the
soil from which it grew. There are parts of Florida specializing in truck
crops for the markets, where the soil lacks iron — so does the food raised- —
and many of the people eating this food suffer from anemia. Phosphate de¬
ficiencies, reflecting themselves in bone and breeding troubles among live¬
stock, are very common. In Texas phosphorus deficiency in advanced stages
is called "creeps” or "loin disease”; in Alabama, "creeping sickness” or
"sweeny.”

Plants require eighteen or more kinds of elements. The elements most
likely to become exhausted are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and cal¬
cium; and in any program of soil replenishment, phosphorus is indeed the
key. "Recently,” says W. M. Landess of the TVA staff, "I showed a group
of farm women two bones. We put them on a scale and weighed them.
One bone weighed twice as much as the other. They were thigh bones from
Jersey heifers a year and a half old. Both animals were fed the same ration
which was low in phosphorus, but one was given a supplement of mineral
phosphorus. This was in Sn experiment at the University of Minnesota.
After studying the two bones, one of the homemakers said, 'I know some
people I’ve considered onery. Now I see that perhaps they just don’t have
what it takes.’ ”

THE APPROACH TO A CURE - UNDERSTANDING OUR SOIL

We have become so accustomed to concrete and steel, automobiles
and airplanes, and the comforts and luxuries of our modern life, that we
are prone to forget our dependence on the soil.

So important are the few inches of earth which produce our food,
clothing, and most of our shelter that the topsoil has been compared with
the placenta which nourishes the unborn child. But unlike the child, we
are never freed from our dependence on the earth’s placenta.

There was a time in man’s history when he, like the animals of the
forest, had to spend all his time seeking food and a means of protecting
himself from the weather. As recently as the time of Columbus, 19 out of
every 20 persons were engaged in the production of food, clothing, and
shelter. Today, in the United States, because of the development of our
scientific agriculture and because of our bountiful soil, one farmer is able
to produce enough food for his family and for five other families.

MAN AND HIS ASSOCIATION WITH THE SOIL

There is at least a little love of the soil and of growing things in all of
us — there is a lot of love of the soil in some of us. It is truly astonishing how

This statement is from SOILS AND MEN, Yearbook of Agriculture for 1938.

8

The Texas Journal of Science

much we are all gardeners. From the window box to the farm, and from
the suburban garden to the great ranch — flowers, fruits, and vegetables
sprout up and grow. Nor are these masters of growing things always
"countrified” people. On the contrary, the plants are often tended by hands
accustomed to grease and wrenches, or cared for by hands that spank the
next generation into the straight and narrow path. This is very heartening.
It makes one people of all of us!

The failure to maintain an average crop yield over a period of years is
usually blamed on the soil. As a matter-of-fact, a crop of corn or cotton is
a product of the joint efforts of man and soil. Such a failure, therefore, may
be due to the man or to the soil or to their joint effort; in the last case, the
blame being on the man for he is the intelligent and directive head of the
partnership. The failure on the part of the man may be due to the fact
that he has selected a soil unsuited to corn or cotton, or, having selected a
proper soil, he may have failed to manage the soil intelligently. On some
soils it is almost impossible to make a living.

When a soil is referred to as a tool in the hands of a man to accomplish
something with, it is not a simple tool such as a saw or a plane, but a highly
organized tool such as a factory or an engine or an animal.

Soil types differ in their character and in their ability and capacity to
perform service, just as factories and engines and animals differ. They each
require different care and treatment, and it is upon the recognition and use
of these differences in capacity and treatment that ultimate success depends.
In the modern concept of the soil, man has a leading part. FFe is the intelli¬
gent and constructive partner in the use of the soil — to make it productive
or to destroy its usefulness.

man’s use of fertilizers

Our farmers today have become familiar with the terms 'nitrogen,’
'potash,5 'lime,5 and 'phosphate,5 because they have been taught that these
substances in the soil constitute a valuable part of the food of plants and
they have come to apply different compounds of these materials to their
crops in commercial fertilizers. Nitrogen was unknown, however, until the
year 1772. While 'glowing5 phosphorus was known to the old alchemists
and was used in some of their mysterious rites, it was so difficult to pre-
pare that as late as 173 0 the price was extremely high, and it sold in London
for 10 to 16 shillings per ounce. The occurrence of calcium phosphate in
bones was not known until 1769, and it was first obtained from bone ash
in 1771. Potassium was not discovered until 1808. So we see that it has
been only within a comparatively few years that knowledge of fertilizers
and their use has been available. Now we can plan intelligently for over¬
coming the menace and threat which the soil presents to one who wants to
go beyond the subsistence level of production on naturally unproductive
soils, or to make productive soils even more productive.

It was not until Liebig’s classical work in Germany was announced in
1840 that any scientific consideration was given to the study of the soil in
its relation to crop production. Liebig pointed out that certain newly dis¬
covered materials such as nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, and other
substances were essential to the growth of plants. Liebig’s "Law of the
Minimum” is a classic. This law says that plant growth is limited by the
one element most deficient.

Soil and Water Conservation

S>

TRAGEDIES OF THE SOIL

In all life the things that impress themselves upon the human mind
are the tragedies — the quick and sudden changes from life to death — rather
than the slower changes involved in most natural processes. The impressive
things in the history of the world are the wars and revolutions leading to
the overturning of nations or the overthrow of political parties. Gradual
evolution of our civilization continuing through the centuries may be
more important but is less spectacular. Less interest is shown toward inven¬
tions and philosophies that, working through mental revolts and intellectual
wars, have made it possible to overcome and to overthrow ignorance and
superstition and to bring about control and development of a more pro¬
gressive society.

In the days of the old sailing vessels, the Goodwin sandbars off the
English coast were known as a graveyard of ships. The sandbars still remain
a menace to commerce and navigation. They represent an irresistible force
of quicksands that engulf vessels that are once caught. The disasters and
the tragedies associated with these sands have become a part of history,
poetry, legend, and fiction.

The Goodwin sandbars constitute a great sand bank some eight miles
long and about 4 miles wide. At high tide these sands are completely covered
with water to a depth of about six feet; at low tide they project some six
feet above the water’s surface. When exposed above the water the sand is
hard and firm and one may walk for miles as on hard beach sand. As the
tide rises, the sand gets soft and the feet sink rapidly. In 1703 it is reported
that 13 men-of-war were wrecked and disappeared in the quicksands. What
a world of tragedy is written in this stretch of sand, the properties of which
are not understood and have not been conquered in the ages that have passed
since England’s maritime trade has been developing.

The Goodwin Sands are feared and avoided, if possible, by all people
who travel by sea because of the tragedies that have occurred to life and
property through the awful forces operating in them. In many respects, the
Goodwin Sands are like the Norfolk soils of our southern Gulf coast. These
Norfolk sands appear peaceful, harmless, and serene; yet it is safe to say
that they have caused more tragedies in the loss of life and property through
ignorance of their strength, resources, and weaknesses, through loss of
energy, loss of money, loss of hope, and loss of life, than have the Goodwin
Sands off the English coast. The newcomer sees the Gulf coast sands mainly
as they are farmed by those who have attained success. The newcomer may
fail to understand the challenge or the menace, the mysteries, the strength,
or the weaknesses of the land. The doom of the ship which strikes the
Goodwin Sands is quick and awful in its destruction of life and property.
The doom of a man who is shipwrecked on a poor sandy soil is slow, en¬
during, and commonplace. His final chapter is not spectacular, is not re¬
corded in literature, and seldom stands out as a signal to warn other men
to avoid the paths that he has followed.

WISE USE OF THE SOIL

In the care and use of the soil there are enemies to overcome and to
overthrow, if success is to be attained. Each individual soil must be studied,
also its resources and possibilities; its menace and weaknesses must be under-

10

The Texas Journal of Science

stood to gain ultimate success. In spite of the teachings of the agricultural
colleges and experiment stations, of the Department of Agriculture, of the
county agents, of the vocational teachers, and of the farm organizations,
there is an inertia among people that is difficult to overcome.

We have demonstrations of the best known ways of doing all farm
jobs a little better. We in the Texas A&M College Extension Service have
pasture demonstrations, hog demonstrations, corn demonstrations, as well
as demonstrations on the best ways to preserve food, harvest hay, and apply
fertilizers. Farm unit demonstrations are also setup on a whole farm basis
to point out to our rural people a better, cheaper, or easier way to do certain
jobs, and to teach better farming and more pleasant living.

A few devoted men and women in all localities see the need for im¬
provement and uplift in life of the individual, in care of the property, and
in business methods, but their efforts are generally unorganized or the
problems so complex that progress is slow. Our schools and colleges, churches
and societies, community centers and business organizations are all working
for the uplift of society, but for the most part the problems seem so
commonplace to the individual or so involved that his interest is not aroused,
and things are permitted to go on about the same as in grandfather’s day.

Our technology has improved markedly, but our ability to get along
together as individuals, groups, states, or nations has not improved very
much.

Should we not renew our efforts to study our mutual problems, set up
goals toward which to work, then cooperate with anyone and everyone to
conserve soil and water? It is a lifetime job.

LITERATURE CITED

Graham, Michael — 1941 — Soil and sense. Faber and Faber, Ltd., London.

Lord, Russell — 1943 — Soil, war and health. Survey Graphic.

Smith, T. Lynn — 1944 — The sociology of rural life.

Soil Conservation Service. Influence of soils on the effectiveness of the country church. A
study of the economics of Christianity in 222 rural churches in South Carolina.

U.S.D.A. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1938.

Whitney, Milton — 1925 — Soil and civilization. D. Van Nostrand Company, New York.

THE CONSERVATION OF POTENTIAL SCIENCE TALENT
AMONG OUR YOUNG PEOPLE

Joseph Albright
Collegiate Section

Conservation is the act of protecting or guarding that which we have
to the end that there may not come a day when we have not. Only in the
last few decades has conservation and the necessity for it become meaning¬
ful to our average citizen. Yet most of us still think of conservation only
in terms of natural resources such as coal, iron ore, timber, soil, and more
recently, water. Even here the full meaning of conservation had not struck
us as evidenced by the tremendous amount of material that was wasted at
the close of the last war. But much less do we realize the necessity for, and
the meaning of the conservation of our human resources.

As a result of the wholesale destruction wrought by the last war, many
peoples of the world are learning the full significance of conservation; in
fact, a great part of the world’s population is wishing it had something

Potential Science Talent

11

to conserve. In less fortunate areas of the world people are slowly putting
into practice some small measures of conservation, but indeed they are
small in the light of what must be done. Nowadays we’re all thinking of,
and earnestly hoping for, success in attaining a united world. Certainly
there is no specific key to success in this matter, for the aspects to be con¬
sidered in a united world are too many and too varied. But if by some
manner the peoples of the world can see fit to unite and to engage in world¬
wide cooperation, it will be of invaluable aid to a program of conservation.
By establishing world peace never again need we witness the sweeping
devastation of men and material. It is foolish to absolutely waste the natural
resources which might be put to such good use by this generation and by
the generations to come. It is even more foolish for each era of progress
to be climaxed by a world-wide conflict wherein many of our potential
leaders in all fields meet with death. It is imperative that we wait no longer
in exercising protection of the world’s resources, and particularly the world’s
human resources.

What we are concerned with at this time is the conservation of the
human resource, science talent.

Primarily, real ability for creative research is rare, and since this is true,
it is absolutely necessary that none of those who possess this talent go un¬
noticed, and be allowed to drift into some work not worthy of their pe¬
culiar ability without having had encouragement, stimulation, and oppor¬
tunity to show this creativeness. A critical shortage of scientific talent exists
in America today, and the state of Texas is no exception. The discovery
and development of scientific ability among young men and women in this
state’s junior and undergraduate schools is a real need.

Secondly, there is urgent need at the present time — and there is no
reason to think that the demand will be less — for well trained, well quali¬
fied research workers, and for gifted instructors in scientific fields. The mili¬
tary forces of this country urgently need research personnel. Industry of
the nation is begging for adequately trained men and gifted scientists. Our
huge industries here in Texas are eager to employ men who have thorough
knowledge of science, and who are endowed with the scientific spirit, and
who desire to seek out scientific truths. Yet they must be content to employ
those who have only a vague idea of the meaning of research and have not
been imbued with fundamental scientific principles. The demand for
science-trained instructors in the schools of Texas is unprecedented. In
some localities in this state the present method of teaching science is
atrocious. The students emerge with absolutely no basis in fundamental
scientific learning. They have very weak mathematical backgrounds. Much
too often the application of scientific principles is stressed to the neglect of
pure science, and emphasis is placed on the success of the individual finan¬
cially rather than success in gaining knowledge and advancing scientific
truths. It is in the field of teaching that the greatest advancement must
be made if we are to conserve scientific talent among our youth.

Once we realize that there is definite need for the preservation of
youthful ability, it becomes imperative that we establish adequate methods
for recognizing such talent, and that we afford every possible means of
encouragement, stimulation, and assistance to those in which it is found.

One very effective method of searching out those who show promise
of good work in scientific fields is by conducting scholarship searches and

12

The Texas Journal of Science

contests such as that conducted by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation
wherein each year students all over the nation compete for the forty
Westinghouse Science Scholarships. This particular science talent search is
limited to high school seniors. Annually 3 00 students making high ratings
on the Science Aptitude Examinations are chosen. Among these 300, forty
are declared winners and are awarded scholarships, the remainder receiving
honorable mention. To be named a winner or an honorable mention in this
Science Talent Search is one of the highest recommendations for admission
to the leading colleges and universities of the country. Entries in this
particular search are made available to cooperating agencies and committees
in various states to be used in state Science Talent Searches coordinated with
the national competition. By entering the national Science Talent Search
conducted by Westinghouse, students automatically enter searches in those
states where this cooperative venture is in operation. Several of the state
academies of science award state scholarships and give other honors. For in¬
stance in 1947 the academies of science in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa,
Louisiana, Tennessee, and Virginia held such cooperative state Science
Talent Searches. Thus, any student in those states entering the national
competition was automatically entered in the state competition. All entrants
in those states had a double opportunity for scholarships or other recogni¬
tion that would further their careers in science.

But this one particular program instigated and administered by West¬
inghouse should be only a beginning. Other large industries should follow
the lead and establish programs of their own. Large research foundations
and other scientific institutions such as our own Texas Academy of Science
should feel it absolutely necessary to establish science talent searches.
Scholarships should be granted by these groups to those excelling in aca¬
demic attainments and having broad foundations. They should be based
upon strict examinations of all applicants, and should not be limited to
high school students. Different scholarships should be awarded to outstand¬
ing college and university seniors for use in furthering their scientific study
in all types of scientific graduate schools.

In further conserving the scientific talent of our Texas youth a pro¬
gram might be instigated for the periodic investigation of the various
academic institutions, colleges, universities, and high schools for the pur¬
pose of determining methods and quality of instruction in science at these
institutions, as well as the effectiveness of the instruction in the scientific
approach. Furthermore, records should be made of the students who show
promise. By keeping these records it should be an easy matter to determine
what students would be eligible for competition in the examinations for
scholarships. Many students who might otherwise become discouraged for
financial reasons or for other seemingly insurmountable obstacles might
thus be encouraged to enter institutions of higher learning. It is highly
desirable that an effort be made to insure excellent instruction for all
students interested in continued study in any field of science. Oftentimes
it becomes difficult for those who have not had proper instruction or oppor¬
tunity for acquainting themselves with the various ramifications of a par¬
ticular field to continue successfully in higher educational institutions.

Thus it behooves us as individuals possessing insight into the future,
and as patriots having keen desire to insure the maintenance of scientific

Measurement of Animals in Vivo

13

leadership in this country to take steps now providing for every possible
means of aid and encouragement of today’s exceptional students who will
be tomorrow’s outstanding scientists. As a slogan for this undertaking we
might adopt this statement:

Mankind’s preservation wrought through conservation.

A PHYSICAL METHOD TO EVALUATE BODY VOLUME SPECIFIC
GRAVITY AND FAT CONCENTRATION OF ANIMALS IN VIVO

Harry C. Dyme

Foundation of Applied Research
San Antonio, Texas

Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr. J. W. Rhoades
for his aid in the building of the equipment and to
Mr. J. D. Millar for his assistance in conducting chemical
analyses.

In most cases, nutritive studies must be regarded as incomplete unless
they include information on the composition of the animal body. Measuring
growth or fattening in terms of live weight or by the determination of

such characteristics as height, width, length and girth of an animal is at

best an indirect method and furnishes only a rough approximation to the
nutritive value of the animal body. However, a chemical analysis of the
entire body is time-consuming, expensive and under certain experimental
conditions it may be impossible. For that reason, many research workers
are interested in abbreviated procedures or simplified methods that will
make it possible to estimate body composition or certain factors thereof.
Several methods of this nature have already been developed.

J. L. Lush (1926) found that the relation between the fat content of

the entire live animal and the dressing percentage in steers was represented

by a correlation of coefficient of + 0.84. Thus the percentage of fat in the
entire live animal equals 1.782 times the dressing percentage minus 86.40.
K. F. Warner, N. R. Ellis and P. E. Howe (1934) found that the per¬
centage of fat in the edible portion of a hog carcass equals 5.57 plus 1.54
times the percentage of cutting fat and belly based on carcass weight. Ac¬
cording to O. G. Hankins and N. R. Ellis (1934) the percentage of fat in
the edible portion of the carcass equals 22.45 plus 0.691 times average
thickness of back fat in millimeters. C. W. Greene (1919) and C. R.
Moulton (1920) emphasized the value of studying the composition of
animals on a fat-free (protoplasmic) basis. C. R. Moulton, P. F. Trowbridge
and L. D. Haigh (1922) used this method to clarify the changes in the
composition of cattle that occur with increasing age. C. R. Moulton (1923)
also showed that the water content of mammals (on a fat-free basis) de¬
creases rapidly from the early embryo through birth and on to a stage called
chemical maturity. Thereafter it decreases but slightly with further advanc¬
ing age. The protein and ash content (on a fat-free basis) showed just the
reverse relationship, namely a marked increase in relative content until
chemical maturity; thereafter, little or no change occurred. Apparently the
amount of fat in an animal has no effect on the fat-free composition of the
body. Fat (H. P. Armsby and C. R. Moulton, 192 5) is relatively the most
variable component of the animal body, the amount of fat varying with
the age and, especially, with the condition of the animal.

14

The Texas Journal of Science

Excluding meat from very lean animals, E. H. Callow (1946) was
able to express the protein and water content in terms of fat-content by:

(a) % of protein in boneless meat = 20.7 — * 0.207 x the percentage
of fat.

(b) % of H20 = 77 — 0.77 x the percentage of fat.

Apparently the chemical composition of the boneless meat varies in a

remarkably regular manner with the degree of fatness. Working with agri¬
cultural animals, J. A. Murray (1922) found that the average composition
of the whole body at any stage can be calculated when the live weight and
percent of fat in the body are known. He discovered that the chemical
composition is constant and is not affected by fatness; age affected the
composition only to a limited extent.

H. F. Taylor (1922) found that the body specific gravity of fish di¬
minishes proportionately to the fat present. The navigation of fish in salt
water is more difficult in proportion to the amount of fat present; fresher
water is better suited as a physical medium. Migration from salt to fresh
water is very difficult until a certain amount of fat is accumulated. The
diminishing specific gravity which results from increasing fatness probably
has a strong influence upon the movements of fish.

A. L. Tester (1940) developed a specific gravity method for deter¬
mining fatness in herring; hydrostatic weighing was utilizing to determine
specific gravity. A. R. Behnke, B. G. Feen, and W. C. Welharn (1942)
evinced a special interest in the relationship between specific gravity and
the fat content of the body. These authors considered the lean body-weight
to represent the active mass of protoplasm. The presence of an indetermi¬
nate amount of excess adipose tissue renders difficult any precise compu¬
tation; e.g., metabolic rate or dosage of drugs in terms of total body
weight. According to their data, it was possible to utilize body specific
gravity measurements to estimate fat content. They postulated that the
analyzed results of various earlier investigators had eluded comparison be¬
cause of an unknown quantity of air present in the lungs when the measure¬
ments were made. Specific gravity values were corrected for this factor by
determining the residual air volume in the lungs. Provided such a correction
was made, corporeal density could be accurately measured within 0.004
unit by the hydrostatic weighing method. Using the Behnke procedure
with humans, W. J. Messinger and J. M. Steele (1949) were able to calcu¬
late body fat and water with considerable accuracy from body specific
gravity. E. N. Rathbun, N. Pace, H. E. Hinshaw, and A. Buntin (1945)
described a method to determine total body fat by comparing specific
gravity, calculated from water displacement, with actual fat determina¬
tions by extraction. Specific gravity was determined on the eviscerated
carcass of guinea pigs. Equations were derived for the calculation of per¬
cent fat in guinea pigs and also in man.

M. F. Morales, E. N. Rathbun, R. E. Smith and N. Pace (1945) treated
the body as a multiple phase system of fat, bone, muscle, skin, nervous and
visceral tissue, and developed equations which give the amount of each
tissue component as a function of body weight and average body density.
Their equations are based on the assumption that the lean body mass is
relatively uniform in composition. Fat is regarded as the only component
that exhibits appreciable relative variation. Quantitative data obtained with
the guinea pigs substantiated the assumption.

Measurement of Animals in Vivo

15

N. Pace and E. N. Rathbun (1945) presented data supporting the
concept of a lean body mass that is relatively constant in gross chemical
composition. The nitrogen and water content was found to be constant on
a fat-free basis; body fat acts merely as a diluent. N. Pace (1945) derived
equations for the computation of total body fat and total body water from
the equilibrium solubility values in the body of two inert gases. An equation
was also derived for the computation of total body fat from the equilibrium
solubility of one inert gas based on the assumption that water forms a
constant percentage of the fat-free body mass.

B. T. Scheer, S. Dorst, J. F. Codie and D. F. Soule (1947) described
a specific gravity method based on the determination of body volume by
water displacement. They did not find a significant correlation between
specific gravity and fat content of the animal body. Whereas some of the
earlier investigators (A. R. Behnke, B. F. Feen and W. C. Welham (1942) )
had applied a correction for the air in the lungs and others (E. N. Rathbun,
N. Pace, H. E. Hinshaw and H. Buntin (1949)), by determining specific
gravity on the eviscerated carcass, had eliminated variations caused by
lung volume, body volume determined by the Scheer group includes lung
volume.

Calculations were undertaken to test the concept of constant compo¬
sition in the fat-free body. The results are given in Table I. Water, protein,
and ash concentrations (A, B, and D) of different beef cuts (A. L. Winton
and K. B. Winton (1937)) were recalculated on a fat-free basis. This
narrowed the range of concentration quite markedly (E, F, G) and grouped
the values very close to their arithmetic means. Utilizing the arithmetic
means of these fat-free values as the constants for water, protein, and ash,
these components were recalculated on a whole-body basis (Ai, Bi, and
D] ) . The figures indicate that protein, water and ash concentrations of
various portions of the animal may be readily evaluated merely by deter¬
mining the fat concentration and then assuming a constant composition
for the lean body mass. Therefore, these calculations greatly strengthen the
concept that the composition of the fat-free mature animal body is constant.

Work was undertaken to develop a volumenometer which would
measure body volume and body density (specific gravity) in the living
animal. Since an animal can be weighed to within 0.1 gram, the accuracy
of a specific gravity determination is principally limited by the accuracy
of volume measurements.

If a manometer is properly attached to a closed system and the con¬
tained air is compressed by means of some levelling device, the rise of the
manometer column is related to the quantity of air in the system. If a solid
body is then introduced into the system the quantity of contained air be¬
comes reduced which results in a greater rise in the manometer column
upon subsequent compression. The volume of the body introduced into the
system may be exactly determined by comparing the manometer readings
obtained prior and during the body’s presence in the system. This principle
was utilized in building our first apparatus (Model I).

This apparatus consists of a stainless steel chamber (D) connected by
glass tubing to a water manometer and a glass bulb (E). Fines are marked
in the tube as A and B. The apparatus was calibrated with precision-volume
steel blocks. An animal was placed in D and the air-tight end was closed.

16

The Texas Journal of Science

MODEL I

The mercury level was adjusted at B, the stopcock C which had been open
to the atmosphere was closed, the mercury level was raised to A and the
manometer reading was taken. Since compression is always accomplished
by eliminating the same volume (B to .A), the restulting pressure indicates
the volume of the system from which it is possible to evaluate the volume
of the body placed in the system. The shape of the calibration curve does
not alter with atmospheric changes but its position does shift. The apparatus
must, therefore, be calibrated each day it is used. Furthermore, the appa¬
ratus proved to be very sensitive to temperature changes; the manometer
reading changed several centimeters when a hand was held in contact with
the chamber wall. Since the temperature of a rat is several degrees above
that of the room, we finally had to enclose the entire apparatus in a cabinet
thermostatically controlled at the body temperature of the animal (3 8°C).
The results were only accurate to within 2 % ; this is probably due to the
low pressures involved (approx. 1.1 atmosphere). The heat of compression
was responsible for an appreciable difference in the pressure reading; the

Measurement of Animals in Vivo

17

readings could not be duplicated even though they were taken at the same
time after compression. A two-minute waiting period appeared to be neces¬
sary before readings could be taken; however, leaving the rat in the system
for such an interval did not prove feasible.

The next apparatus (Model II) that was built consists of essentially
two complete systems of equal volume connected to each other by means of
a water manometer. Compression, brought about by eliminating an equal

MCDEL H

volume in each system through raising the mercury level (G’,G to H,’ H)
in the closed apparatus (I closed), affects both systems to the same extent.
One system contains a single chamber (A) fitted with an air-tight cover;
the animal is placed in this chamber. The other system consists of several
precision volume chambers (B, C, D, E, F) and an adjustable precision-
volume J so that any desired volume may be accurately eliminated from
the system. When the empty closed apparatus is compressed there is no
difference in liquid level in the manometer for the final volumes of the
two systems are still equal. A rat is placed into the chamber (A) and a
volume approximately equal to that of the animal is eliminated from the
other system. The two systems are then shut off from the atmosphere at
(I) and compressed as in the previous operation. A pressure difference be¬
tween the systems, (after compression) is the result of an initial volume
difference (before compression) . Zero difference in the liquid level indicates

18

The Texas Journal of Science

that the animal volume is exactly equal to the eliminated volume. To
derive the rat volume when there is a pressure difference, the difference
between the volume of the rat and the eliminated volume is cal¬
culated from the gas laws and applied to the known eliminated volume.
Heat of compression effects cancel out because the volumes are equal in the
empty systems and almost equal in the loaded systems. Although the actual
pressures employed are 1.2 to 1.5 atmospheres, only a small water mano¬
meter is required, for the pressure difference is slight. Since the entire ap¬
paratus is contained in a cabinet thermostatically controlled at 3 8°C, opera¬
tion is not affected by the body heat of the animal. Immediately after com¬
pression the manometer can be cut off from the rest of the apparatus at
K and L. Respiratory air exchange has little effect on the determination
because the operation is so rapid. Daily variations in atmospheric pressure
do not affect the results, for measurement is on a comparative basis. The
use of capillary tubes (1 mm.) H’ and H instead of definite level marks
accelerates the determination greatly. Error was found in the operation of
this apparatus except where the two displaced volumes were virtually equal.
By repeatedly altering the volue of the eliminated volume until the two
were almost equal, volumes could be determined within 0.2 cc. However,
since twenty seconds were required to equilibrate the apparatus after com¬
pression, repeated runs with rats did not prove practical. The presence of
the animal in the chamber for this length of time so altered the reading
that results could not be duplicated.

To overcome these difficulties a third apparatus was built which would
record maximum pressure immediately after a very rapid compression. This
apparatus (Model III) utilizes pressures ranging from 1.2 -1.5 atmospheres.
It consists of a single system that is very simple in design and principle.
The water manometer has been replaced by a U tube ( 1 cm. diameter) con¬
taining mercury. This U tube is open to the atmosphere through a capillary
tip B. The stopcock H is opened long enough to allow mercury to flow in
from G until it begins to escape from B. The system is shut off from the
atmosphere at I and then compressed by raising the mercury level from
D to A; this forces mercury out at B into the collector E. The apparatus
is calibrated with steel blocks of known volume. The system can be com¬
pressed very rapidly (less than 10 seconds) and only the maximum pres¬
sure is recorded. The results of determinations on metal blocks checked
very closely with those determined by other methods. The error was less
than ±0.5 cc. and was generally as low as ± 0.3 cc.

Using this volumenometer in a constant temperature room (3 8°C)
volume determinations were run on twelve rats and their specific gravities
were calculated. The specific gravity values for animals of similar fat com¬
position appeared to increase with the size of the animal; i.e., they were not
strictly proportional to the percent of body fat. However, it is readily
apparent that the larger animals are subjected to greater pressures in this
apparatus than the smaller ones. Since the animal body contains trapped
air spaces, an animal that is subjected to a higher pressure would be com¬
pressed to a greater degree; this greater relative compression would result
in a smaller apparent volume and a larger specific gravity. This assumption
would account for the results observed.

With this in mind the values were adjusted to a comparative basis
(i.e., reduce the volumes of the larger animals to values which would have

Measurement of Animals in Vivo

19

MODEL in

MEHCTO

been secured had they been measured under the same pressure) and the
corrected volumes were used to calculate animal spcific gravity (Table II).
The specific gravity values are plotted against fat concentration in Graph I.
Using the arithmetic mean of the fat and specific gravity values a theoreti¬
cal line was derived by adding uniform increments of fat (assumed specific
gravity = 0.940) and calculating the resulting changes in fat concentration
and specific gravity. All of the rats, except number 12, are clearly grouped
about this theoretical line. This animal, according to the chemical maturity
concept (C. R. Moulton (1923)), is immature; this would account for
the large deviation since the fat-free body of the immature animal differs
in composition from that of the mature animal.

discussion

Gain in body protein and fat in conjunction with weight of feed con¬
sumed are generally employed to yield a measure of the feed utilization
efficiency in storing productive energy; but it must be recognized that this
value gives no indication of how the efficiency changed during the period
the feed was being consumed. Thus, two animals may be equally efficient in
their use of feed at one age but very unlike at some other age. In order to
use a method which permits determination of (a) the initial efficiency,
i.e., the efficiency when the first feed was eaten; (b) the rate at which the
efficiency changed as the percent of various components change; and (c)
the efficiency of any composition within the range for which data were
obtained, it is necessary to have data on the body composition of the ani-

20

The Texas Journal of Science

mals obtained at appropriate intervals, and the cumulative weights of feed
consumed up to each time when body composition determinations are made.

Thus, a method to determine composition of gains in the live animal
would make possible a better evaluation of rations and nutritive values of
foods. At present the partial composition of gains in the live animal may
be derived, after a fashion, by time-consuming and laborious nitrogen bal¬
ance and respiration metabolism studies. Thus a convenient, facile and rapid
method to derive animal body composition values should prove very useful,
permitting many determinations to be made at frequent intervals. Such a
method hinges upon the relation of specific gravity to fat content and
utilizes the constant composition values of the fat-free body. Deriving the
specific gravity of an animal by hydrostatic weighing presents serious prac¬
tical difficulties and also fails to allow for the volume of air in the lungs
and the intestinal tract. Similarly body density determinations involving
body volumes obtained by water displacement erroneously include the
volume of air in these sections of the body. In addition, air may be trapped
in the fur of the animal. On the other hand, body volume determinations
utilizing the corporeal volumenometer, which automatically takes lung and
intestinal tract volume into account, most authentically represent the ac¬
tual volumes occupied by the body substance of the animals. The specific
gravity values calculated from the volumes thus determined represent true
corporeal density. Since the content of carbohydrate in the body is quite
small, an estimation of the continual changes in fat and protein content in
the live animal yields an approximately complete picture of the influence
of food upon the organic composition of the body.

SUMMARY

A corporeal volumenometer has been devised and built which measures
the body volume of live animals. Animal volume is determined by record-

Measurement of Animals in Vivo

21

ing the difference in compressibility of the contained air with and without
the animal. Body density or specific gravity is then calculated from the
volume and weight of the animal. Since the fat content was found to be
proportional to the animal’s specific gravity, the former may be calculated
from this value. In the light of evidence of the relative constancy of com¬
position of the lean body mass protein, ash and water concentration may
be readily calculated when the fat values are known. The possibility of
employing this method to evaluate body composition in the living animal
and its implictions are discussed.

Composition of Various Beef Cuts Calculated on Different Bases

22

The Texas Journal of Science

Measurement of Animals in Vivo

S o

) Highest and lowest values are

24

The Texas Journal of Science

TABLE II

BODY VOLUME, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND
FAT CONTENT OF RATS

NO.

SEX

WEIGHT

grams

VOLUME SPECIFIC GRAVITY

C.C.

FAT

%

1

F

216.9

199.9

1.085

6.2

2

F

197.0

182.1

1.082

8.1

3

M

202.9

187.5

1.082

7.2

4

M

222.6

205.5

1.082

6.9

5

F

164.9

153.0

1.078

10.9

6

F

188.7

174.2

1.083

7.0

7

F

130.2

120.0

1.085

5.5

8

M

107.3

98.6

1.087

4.3

9

F

135.2

124.2

1.088

4.0

10

M

171.0

157.5

1.086

4.5

11

M

136.8

125.1

1.085

5.2

12

M

105.5

97.1

1.087

2.3

LITERATURE cited

Armsby, H. P. and C. R. Moulton — 1925 — The animal as a converter of matter and energy.
Chemical Cat. Co. New York. 236 pp.

Behnke, A. R., Feen, B. G. and W. C. Welham — 1942 — The specific gravity of healthy men.
J.A.M.A. 118: 495-8.

Callow, E. H. — 1946 — Comparative studies of meat 1. The chemical composition of fatty and
muscular tissue in relation to growth and fattening. J. Agr. Science 37 : 113-29.

Greene, C. W. — 1919 — Biochemical changes in the muscle tissue of King Salmon during the
fast of spawning migration. J. Biol. Chem. 39: 435-56.

Coastal Drainage Problems in Relation to Waterfowl 2 5

Hankins, O. G., and N. R. Ellis — 1934 — Physical characteristics of hog carcasses as measures
of fatness. J. Agr. 48: 257-64.

Lush, J. L. — 1926 — Practical methods of estimating the proportion of fat and bone in cattle
slaughtered in commercial packing plants. J. Agr. Res. 32 : 727-55.

Messinger, W. J. and J. M. Steele — 1949 — Relationship of body specific gravity to body fat
and water content. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med. 70: 316-8.

Morales, M. F., Rathbun, E. N., Smith, R. E. and N. Pace — 1945 — Studies on body composi¬
tion. II. Theoretical consideration regarding the major body-tissue components with
suggestions for application to man. J. Biol. Chem. 158: 677-84.

Moulton, C. R. — 1920 — Biochemical changes in the flesh of beef animals during underfeeding.

J. Biol. Chem. 43: 67-78.

- 1923— Age and chemical development in mammals. J. Biol. Chem. 57: 79-97.

Moulton, C. R., Trowbridge, P. F. and L. D. Haigh — 1922 — Studies in animal nutrition.
III. Changes in chemical composition on different planes of nutrition. Res. Bull. 55 :

82 pp.

Murray, J. A. — 1922 — The chemical composition of animal bodies. J. Agr. Science 12 : 103-9.

Pace, N. and E. N. Rathbun — 1945 — Studies on body composition. III. The body water and
chemically combined N in relation to fat content. J. Biol. Chem. 158 : 685-91.

Pace, N. — 1945 — Equations for the estimation of total body fat and total body water from
the solubility of inert grass in the body. Res. Proj. X-191. Report No. 4. Naval Med.
Res. Inst.

Rathbun, E. N., Pace, N., Hinshaw, H. E. and R. Buntin — 1945 — Studies on body composi¬
tion. I. The determination of total body fat by means of the body specific gravity. J. Biol.
Chem. 158 : 667-76.

Scheer, B. T., Dorst, S., Codie, J. F. and I). F. Soule — 1947 — Physical capacity of rats in
relation to energy and fat content of the diet. Am. J. Physiol. 149: 194-203.

Taylor, H. F. — 1922 — Deductions concerning the air bladder and the specific gravity of
fishes. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 38: 121-6.

Tester, A. L.— 1940 — A specific gravity method for determining fatness ( condition) in
herring (Clupea pallasii). J. Fish Res. Bd. Canada 4: 461-71.

Warner, K. F., Ellis, N. R. and P. E. Howe-—1934 — Cutting yields of hogs and index of
fatness. J. Agr. Res. 48 : 241-55.

Winton, A. L. and K. B. Winton — 1937 — The structure and composition of foods. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York 3: 327.

COASTAL DRAINAGE PROBLEMS IN RELATION TO WATERFOWL

John R. Singleton

Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission
Rockport, Texas

The constant supply of fresh water plays a major role in the manage¬
ment of waterfowl marshes and feeding areas. This has been vividly demon¬
strated not only this year, but in previous years as well. Local conditions may
vary greatly as was the case this fall.* The lower portion of the coast from
Freeport to Brownsville had plentiful rains in August, September, and some
rain in October. The ponds, potholes, and low areas were filled with fresh
water after a dry summer. So much so in fact that most waterfowl food
plants began a rapid second growth and produced a second crop of fruits.
Looking over this area, one might conclude that, for once, waterfowl con¬
ditions were excellent, with plenty of watered potholes and ponds and a
plentiful supply of natural foods. This, however, did not hold true for the
entire coast. In that region northeast of Freeport, the marshes were ex¬
tremely dry. Water was scarce and in many instances the available water
was brackish due to tidal action and through the normal process of evapora¬
tion. In this particular section on the coast, available water was limited to
flooded rice fields, rice canals, reservoirs and a few large ponds.

In order to relate this problem of available water to present drainage
programs, I would first like to give a few facts and figures on drainage
plans in that region of the coast from Galveston Bay to Sabine Lake, em¬
bracing the counties or Jefferson, Chambers, and Liberty. The purpose of
these drainage programs is to improve the land for its best land-use practices
by being in a position to control water and soil erosion.

1948

26

The Texas Journal of Science

There are three drainage districts involved in these counties:

1. The lower Trinity District of 6 54,000 acres in Chambers County
west of the Trinity River, and all of Liberty County except the
southeast corner. Organized in June, 1945.

2. The Trinity Bay District of 437,200 acres in Chambers County

east of the Trinity River and Trinity Bay, 81,000 in the south¬

west corner of Liberty County, a total of approximately 5 82,200
acres. Organized in April, 1943.

3. The Coastal District of 523,800 acres, being all of Jefferson County
except the 81,000 in the southwest corner included in the Trinity
Bay District. Organized in January, 1943.

The benefits to be derived from these drainage programs are as follows:

1 . The ultimate improvement of economic and social standards of the
people through conserving and developing the soil and water re¬
sources.

2. The setting up of a program whereby all landowners within a

district may work together in solving drainage, erosion, and re¬

lated problems.

Immediate benefits would be in the form of additional acreage available
for crop production such as rice and sorghum, increased crop yields through
drainage improvements, and improved highway and county road drainage.

In a recent conversation with Robert A. Harling, District Conserva¬
tionist, Soil Conservation Service, Liberty, Texas, I was informed that no
plans have been made, nor were anticipated, to drain any of the marsh land
within these counties, since the best land practice use on such areas would
be wildlife and grazing. Therefore, the plans are to drain those areas above
the marsh and to provide a system of waterways to carry the waters through
to the bays or its natural deposition point. There is one outstanding instance
where this was done partially with very harmful results. Spindletop Gully,
in Jefferson and Chambers Counties, which drains 60,000 acres, was dredged
out to the edge of the marsh. The bottom was widened from 12 to 50 feet.
The results was that during seasons of heavy rainfall, this water hits the
marsh with a three foot head on it. With no system having been provided
to carry this excess water through and out of the marsh, it has flooded the
area with disastrous results* The marsh previou to drainage had been an ex¬
cellent muskrat and waterfowl habitat, with considerable grazing acreage
available, even though brackish. Now it has 3 to 5 feet of water on it dur¬
ing the rainy season and is a fresh water marsh, with large stands of fresh
water reed cane making it virtually useless for wildlife or cattle. An addi¬
tional factor in this particular case is the Intracoastal Waterway. Army
Engineers are adverse to emptying these drainage ditches into the canal
because a rapid flow of water interfers with the normal handling of tugs
and barges. The only way to take this excess water out of the marsh above
or north of the canal is to either divert the natural flow of water, which
meets strenuous objections from the landowners, or to cut a ditch parallel
to the canal and to the nearest lake or bay.

While the overall drainage program does not include drainage of the
marsh itself, portions of the marsh are being drained. In order to carry the
excess water through the marsh, it has been necessary to dredge some of the

Coastal Drainage Problems in Relation to Waterfowl 27

old bayous out to a depth of 16 feet, and a surface width of 100 feet or
over. Exact figures on these measurements were not available. It is not diffi¬
cult to see what this has done. To be specific, Hilderbrant’s Bayou in

Jefferson County, which drains the city of Beaumont, has been dredged to
approximately the dimensions given above. During the dry summer months
of 1948, we were in this bayou and adjacent marsh. In places which nor¬
mally held some water the year around, there was nothing but dry earth

and 2 to 4 inch cracks in the marsh bottom. The deepening of the bayou

had drained all water from the slow moving sluggish tributary streams and
left them high and dry.

Likewise, during the dry season when water from rice irrigation was
at a premium, the marsh streams were at such a low level that salt water
from the Gulf intruded for a distance of twenty or thirty miles in these
streams.

In the foregoing it may appear that I have a very low opinion of the
drainage work. I certainly have not intended to leave that impression.
While some detrimental effects have been observed under present conditions,
we would be foolish to take the stand that all drainage is bad. It can not be
denied that once these plans are completed, the upland landowners will be
greatly benefited. Our problem, as I see it, is to work out some system of
cooperation to make use of this water being carried through the marsh.
Mr. Harling is indeed a very cooperative person and has requested that we
show our side of the problem to him and give our recommendations for a
cooperative program.

The problem now is — what can we do? Is it possible to store this
water for future use? Can some system be devised to hold water on the
marsh which will naturally be drained by the 3 or 4 outlets to be put
through the marshes? These problems must be worked out. At present I do
not know the answers. However, we are fortunate that most of these plans
are only on paper.

We have at least two years before these plans can possibly be in opera¬
tion. Some drainage is being dene at present, but it is by town, or highway,
or rice irrigation canal companies. The plans of the S. C. S. cannot be in
action in less than two years.

It seems to me that levees could be constructed along certain main
drainage canals, with flood gates or locks on the tributary streams, to retain
some water in the marsh; that additional salt water locks could be placed
into operation to hold salt water out and fresh water in, and possibly that
large reservoirs could be established to store water. Such a program will
entail considerable expense, but if we want to preserve our wildlife it may
be the only means.

Marsh landowners are going to suffer economic loss as a result of
upstream drainage. Those who benefit from drainage should be planning to
build the necessary structures to prevent flooding or drainage of the marshes.
Since the cost of protective structures will be great and the marshes are on
private land, the most practical solution seems to be for marsh owners to
force drainage districts to protect them from loss.

In one way, waterfowl probably have benefited from drainage. It is
interesting to note that domestic rice makes up from 40% (Chambers
County) to 65 % (Eagle Lake) of the total volumetric percentage of all

28

The Texas Journal of Science

food items eaten by waterfowl. These figures are from stomach analysis
made during the previous two hunting seasons. Martin and Uhler in their
bulletin on "Food of Game Ducks in the United States and Canada” show
that rice makes up only 3.60% of the total volumetric percentage of foods
eaten. However, their records date back to 1901 and include only 315 water-
fowl from the Texas coast. Rice acreage has increased several times in
Texas. The Texas Year Book states that approximately 145,000 acres were
in rice in 1896. According to the 1948 Texas Almanac 412,000 acres of
rice were harvested in 1946. It is very likely that a great deal of this in¬
creased acreage was in areas of excellent natural waterfowl habitat.

In order to maintain the waterfowl marshes on the Texas Coast, it is
essential that water levels be constant. This is necessary for growth of
marsh habitat of waterfowl and muskrats, as well as for insuring breeding
success of the native mottled mallard and muskrats.

LITERATURE CITED

Harling, Robert A., and Louis Herndon -1947 — Report of drainage survey of the Coastal
Soil Conservation District, Texas. U. S. Dept. Agric., S. C. S., Region 4. 16 pp., illus.
Harling, Robert A., and Louis Herndon —1947 — Report of the drainage survey of the Lower
Trinity Soil Conservation District, Texas U. S. Dept. Agric., S. C. S., Refion 4. 18
pp., illus.

Harling, Robert A., and Louis Herndon — 1947- Report of the drainage survey of the Trinity
Bay Soil Conservation District, Texas. U. S. Dept. Agric., S. C. S., Region 4. 18 pp.,
illus.

Martin, A. C. and F. M. Uhler — 1939 — Foods of game ducks in the United States and
Canada. U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bui. 634: 1-156, illus.

Raines, C. W. — 1902 — The Year Book for Texas. 346 pp., illus.

The Dallas Morning News — 1947 — Texas Almanac. 608 pp., illus.

THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF MACROBRACHIUM

(River Shrimp)

Joel W. Hedgpeth
University of Texas
Institute of Marine Science
Port Aransas, Texas

INTRODUCTION

The large river shrimps occurring in the United States are well known
locally, because of their size and huge claws, and one species is of some
commercial value. Nevertheless, the literature on these interesting crusta¬
ceans is so incomplete and scattered that identification of the various species
by non-specialists has been impossible. The river shrimps are members of the
palaemonid genus Macrobrachium , closely related to the little freshwater
grass or "glass” shrimps of the genus Palaemonetes. There are several other
genera in the family Palaemonidae, including Palaemon and Leander, but
these usually occur only in the sea. Some of the species are found charac¬
teristically among the creatures which comprise the microcosomes of the
sargassum. Recently, Dr. L. B. Holthuis of the Rijksmuseum van Natuur-
lijke Historie of Leiden, working at the U. S. National Museum, made a
thorough systematic revision of the American members of the Palaemonidae.
This work is now awaiting publication by the Allan Hancock Foundation,
and I am indebted to Dr. Holthuis for much of the information on the
taxonomy and systematics of the genus Macrobrachium , and for the details
on which the key to the species north of the Rio Grande is based. Since
Dr. Holthuis’ comprehensive work is a purely systematic treatment, this

North American River Shrimp

29

paper will summarize what is known of the ecology and distribution of this
genus in the waters north of the Rio Grande.

The literature on river shrimps in the United States is surprisingly
meager, and several of the species remained unfigured before the author’s
note in the Progressive Fish-Culturist (1947). Disregarding the casual
systematic and distributional notes on the various species, there are but
four important papers on the Macrobrachiums of the United States. The
first of these is Schmitt’s ( 1933 ) distributional notes on all four species.
This was followed by McCormick’s papers (1933, 1934) on the anatomy
of M acrohrachmm ohione. A few years later, Gunter (1937) published the
results of a preliminary study of the life history of the same species.

Genus macrobrachium Bate

The generic name Palaeiion is common in earlier literature, including
Ward and Whipple (1918, p. 845). Another name formerly used for this
genus is Bitbynus, which was favored by Rathbun (1902) More than a
hundred species of Macrobrachium are recognized, occurring throughout
the tropical regions. Twenty-six species are known from the Western
Hemisphere, but only four have been recorded north of the Rio Grande.
On the whole, the species are partly euryhalin, but there is no entirely
marine species although the adults of many species invade bays, and the
larvae of some lndo-Pacific species have been found in the sea. Without
doubt this occurrence in bays accounts for the widespread distribution of
many species, which have been able to spread through many river systems
from bay to bay (Gunter, 1937), or through the dispersal of their larvae,
which may be more tolerant of higher salinities than the adults. It is pos¬
sible, especially on the Gulf Coast, for strictly freshwater organisms to
migrate from river to river via stream confluences at the deltas since late
Pleistocene time (Price, 1942). Some species are exclusively fresh water in
habit. It is of interest to note that while many marine animals, including
such decapod Crustacea as the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, frequently in¬
vade freshwater, very few fresh water organisms, once established in this
environment and spawning therein, return to the sea. Exceptions of course
are the anadromous fish such as salmon and sturgeon. The gizzard shad,
Dorosoma ccpcdianum (Le Sueur) of the eastern and middle United States is
a partially anadromous species (Gunter, 1945) with completely landlocked
populations and others which invade brackish waters, behaving in this re¬
spect like some populations of Macrobrachium .

The principal characters of the genus Macrobrachium are as follows:
the carapace bears a prominent rostrum, and has two spines, the antennal
spine on the anterior margin below the orbit, and the hepatic spine, obliquely
below the antennal spine, well behind the anterior margin of the carapace.
There is a short, well developed branchiostegal groove from the anterior
margin of the carapace to the hepatic spine. There are two pairs of spines
on the dorsal surface of the telson and two pairs on the posterior margin.
The mandible bears a three jointed palp. The eyes are well developed, with
a black cornea. The first two pairs of legs are chelate, and the second
chelipeds are usually large in the adult (hence the generic name Macro¬
brachium), and spiny. The last three pairs of legs are simple.

The species found in the United States may be determined according
to the following key:

The Texas Journal of Science

30

1. Carpus (i.e., ’'wrist” jt.) of second chelipeds as long as, or longer

than, the merus (preceding jt.) _ 2

Carpus of the second leg or cheliped distinctly shorter than merus,
right and left chelipeds subequal. Both fingers provided with a single
large triangular tooth. Rostrum arched over eye, tip directed upwards,
four to six teeth dorsally behind orbit _ carcinus

2. Chelipeds similar, subequal, with straight fingers; rostrum somewhat

arched, two to four teeth dorsally behind orbit _ 3

Chelipeds dissimilar, larger one heavier, with inflated palm, fingers of
smaller chela arched, gaping; rostrum comparatively straight, with
12-13 small teeth dorsally, 4-5 behind the orbit _ olfersii

3. Dorsal teeth of rostrum continued out to tip, two behind orbit, ventral
teeth more or less regularly spaced along rostrum; chelipeds large,
strong, fingers covered by velvet or felt-like pubescence, with single

large proximal tooth and small denticles behind _ acanthurus

Distal tip of rostrum without spines dorsally and ventrally, 3-4 teeth
dorsally behind orbit; chelipeds small, fingers naked or with scattered
tufts of setae, with small, equal teeth proximally _ ohione

macrobrachium acanthurus (Wiegmann)

This species is readily separable from the others by the long slender,

cylindrical carpus and chela, and the presence of but two teeth on the

nils; c, M. ohione ; d, M. olfersii.

North American River Shrimp

31

rostrum behind the orbit. The fingers are covered with a felt-like growth
of fine setae, which are usually covered with mud. In life, this species is a
generally olive green color, shading to blue on the edges of the abdominal
pleura and the uropods. There is a broad, brownish orange stripe along the
median dorsal surface of the abdomen. Specimens measuring 120 to 150
mm. from tip of rostrum to tip of telson are commonly found, and the
chelipeds are about half again as long, i.e., 180-22 5 mm. An adult male is
thus about fifteen inches in total length from telson to tip of the extended
cheliped. The largest male in the U. S. National Museum collection measures
166 mm. from rostrum to telson. The females are somewhat smaller, and
ovigerous specimens ranging from 3 6 to 110 mm. have been noted.

The range of this species is from St. Simon Sound, Georgia, to Rio
Grande do Sul, Brazil, and the West Indies. It is found in Florida from St.
Augustine to Coconut Grove, in Mississippi at Ocean Springs and Biloxi, in
Louisiana at Lockport and near Grand Isle, and occurs in Texas along the
coast in the bays from Palacios to the Rio Grande, and as far as Sioux Plan¬
tation, 97 miles up the Rio Grande.

Figure 2. Lateral view of M. ac ant hums , two fifths natural size.

After the heavy rains of September, 1946, this shrimp appeared in
freshwater ponds around Rockpcrt, Aransas County, in some numbers,
evidently from the Aransas River drainage. There are several specimens in
the collection of the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission at Rockport, most
of them brought in by fishermen from the local bays. One ovigerous female
was taken from Aransas Bay on September 10, 193 5, another on Oct. 1, 1946.

macrobrachium carcinus (Linnaeus)

According to Dr. Holthuis, the name Macrobrachium jamaicense, by
which this species was formerly known, should be abandoned in favor of
the Linnaean name.

32

The Texas Journal of Science

This is the largest and most spectacular species found in North Amer¬
ica, and the most easily recognized, since the carpus of the cheliped is al¬
ways short regardless of the age of the animal. In life it is a handsome
creature. The general dorsal color is dark brown with rich opaque cream
mottling on the sides, shading into a light olive green on the edges of the
pleura and the legs. The large chelipeds are greenish, with brown-black
tubercles and pale orange articulations. The outer uropods are dark, almost
black-green, the inner are opaque cream. The telson is dark green but not as
dark as the outer uropods. The largest measured specimen, a male, is 23 3
mm. from rostrum to telson. The second cheliped is not as long in propor¬
tion to the body as in M. ac ant hums , and is but slightly longer than the
body. It is much heavier than in the preceding species, however, and the
large triangular teeth of the fingers are conspicuous.

Macrobrachium carcinus

Figure 3. Lateral view of M. carcinus, about three tenths natural size.

Because of its spectacular size, this crustacean is usually saved when
caught, and specimens can be found in almost every town on the Texas
coast, crammed into a two quart or gallon jar, displayed in restaurants
and sporting goods stores. The range of this species is from St. Augustine,
Florida, to Santa Catharina, Brazil, and the West Indies. It is found in
several places in Florida, from St. Augustine to Miami and Big Pine Key,
and in Texas from Matagorda Bay to the Rio Grande, but it has not been
recorded from intervening localities. It is often taken in Texas rivers at
considerable distances from the bays, and there are records from the Colo¬
rado River near Austin, San Marcos River near San Marcos, San Antonio,
the Nueces River (it seems to be common in Lake Corpus Christi near
Mathis, the water supply reservoir for Corpus Christi) , the Rio Grande
at Brownsville, and Devils River, Valverde County.

A specimen taken alive in Aransas Bay on October 10, 1946, was kept
alive in an aquarium for two days. It appeared to be an alert and intelligent

North American River Shrimp

33

creature. When poked at with a pencil, it would reach beyond the pencil
for the hand that held it, a somewhat disconcerting maneuver. The long
chelipeds of these shrimp enable them to reach anywhere about themselves,
and they are difficult to pick up alive without tongs or forceps. Several
specimens of Macrobrachium carcinus taken from bay waters were observed
to have small barnacles on the carapace. These appear to be young speci¬
mens of Chelonibia pa tula (Ranzani), a species often found on crabs and on
the Diamond Back Terrapin.

MACROBRACHIUM OHIONE (Smith)

The shape of the tip of the rostrum, prolonged to a dagger like point,
separates this species from the other three found in the United States. It is
also the only species of the four in which the females are larger than the
males. The second chelipeds are comparatively small in comparison with
those of the other species. They are about as long as the body and rather
slender. In the adult the fingers of the chelae bear a few small teeth or
spinules on the proximal half. The general color is pale gray flecked with
small blue spots; the uropods are pale blue. Females of this species occas¬
ionally attain a size of 100 mm. (102 being the largest known), and
ovigerous specimens ranging from 34-90 mm. have been observed (Mc¬
Cormick). The largest male noted by Gunter (1937) was 68 mm.

This species is the only endemic member of the genus in North Amer¬
ica., and is found from Avoca, North Carolina, to Aransas Bay, Texas, and
has been recorded from the following localities:

North Carolina — Avoca, Bertie Co., Newport River, C’arteret Co.

South Carolina — Cooper River ; Edisto River below Dawho River.

Georgia — Savanah, Chatham Co., entrance to Altamasha River, Satilla River, Umbrella Creek.
Albama — Pinto Island, Mobile Bay, early May, 1929. (Fide M. D. Burkenroad).

Mississippi — Greenville, Washington Co., Milliken’s Bend and Vicksburg, Warren Co., Pasca¬
goula, Jackson Co., Baldwin Lodge, Hancock C'o.

Arkansas — Fort Smith, Sebastian Co., Red River.

Louisiana — Delta, Madison Parish, Lake Ponchartrain, New Orleans and Grand Isle, Jefferson
Parish, Pilottown, Plaquemines Parish, Bayou St. Denis, Barataria Bay, Lake Salvador,
St. Charles Parish, Lake Lapourde near Morgan City, Atchafalaya River at Morgan
City, St. Mary Parish, Calcasieu Pass, Calcasieu Parish, Port Allen, West Baton Rouge
Parish.

Ohio — Ohio River at mouth of Great Miami R., S. W. Hamilton Co., mouth of White Oak
Creek, Brown Co., Scioto River, Scioto C'o., Perry Tp., Lawrence Co., White River below
mouth of Mishingum River, Washington Co. (All Ohio records supplied by Mr. Milton
B. Trautman, who reports that this shrimp is taken abundantly in S. W. Ohio only in
the spring.)

Illinois — Cairo, Grand Tower, Chester, Shawneetown, lower Kaskaskia River (Luce, 1933).
Missouri — St. Louis, Hillcrest, Jefferson Co.

Indiana— Cannelton, Lawrenceburgh.

Oklahoma — Clear Lake, McCurtain C’o.

Texas — Trinity River near Magnolia Point, Long Lake near Palestine, Big White Oak Bayou
near Houston, Colorado River near Aiistin, Onion Creek 10 mi. west of Austin, Lavaca
River, Mesquite Bay, Copano Bay, Aransas Bay as far south as Harbor Island.

This shrimp is especially widespread and common in southern Louisi¬
ana, where it is of undetermined importance as an item of food. Inasmuch
as it is sold by individuals from door to door and directly to retail markets,
there is no information available on the numbers caught or as to seasonal
variations in the population. McCormick (1934) reported a small fishery
for this species at Chester, Illinois, but that fishery seems to have been
abandoned in recent years and the Illinois Natural History Survey has no
information on its present commercial use in that state. Gunter (1937)
suggested that the fishery in Louisiana amounted to several thousand pounds
a year at that time. According to the Report of the Louisiana Conservation
Commission for 1914-16, which incidentally contains what is evidently the

34

The Texas Journal of Science

first published photograph of Macrobracbmm ohione, the annual value of
this fishery was then $150,000. Luce ( 1933 ) reports its use as fish bait in
the Kaskaskia River, Illinois.

In Louisiana the fishery is carried on during the summer months.
Traps constructed of slats, similar to lobster pots (which have the advan¬
tage of allowing the young to escape), are the usual gear employed for
catching the shrimp. They are baited with raw meat, fish or cottonseed

Figure 4. Lateral views of M. ohione and M. olfersii,
about one half natural size.

North American River Shrimp

35

cake. Cottonseed cake is sometimes placed in holding cages after the shrimp
are caught to convince possible customers that more repulsive bait has not
been used. In Illinois, the shrimp were caught by "sets” of green willow
and cottonwood branches stuck into the mud near the river bank and
broken over. In the lower river the young are found in shallow water, and
the traps are set in deeper water in Louisiana. Individuals are often caught
with pole and line by fishermen.

According to Gunter’s notes (1937) on this species, the spawning
season in the lower Mississippi area occurs from about April to July.
Ovigerous females were taken from April 14 to July. It appears that a fairly
large percentage of females do not bear eggs during the breeding season.
The shrimp were found in bay water ranging from 1.3 8 to 14.24 0/00,
without apparent effect on the development of the eggs. There is some
indication that this species reacts unfavorably to high turbidity. If high
turbidity during flood periods interferes with respiration of these shrimp
it may explain their frequent appearance in bays during such seasons of
the year.

MACROBRACHIUM olfersii ( Wiegmann)

Unlike the foregoing species, the chelae of the second chelipeds of this
species are unequal in size. Regenerated chelae are smaller but of the same
shape as the originals. The larger chela is broad, rather flat, with well
bowed fingers, and the outer surface of the palm is adorned with numerous
fish-hook like spines which are directed forward. The narrow, finely toothed
rostrum is a distinctive character. This is a small species: males measure up
to 90 mm. and ovigerous females from 3 0 to 6 5 mm.

This species ranges from Florida, through Central and South America
from Vera Cruz, Mexico to Santa Catharina, Brazil. In the United States
it is found only at Davenport Park, Alcazar Pool and Old Waterwork Pool,
St. Augustine, Florida. Obviously its occurrence in Florida is far outside its
normal range, and it is somewhat of a mystery. Schmitt (1933) suggested
that it may have been introduced accidentally. Oddly enough, two other
species, M. acanthurus and M. car dims , are also found in the Alcazar Pool.

GENERAL COMMENTS

As Ortmann (1902) pointed out more than forty years ago, M acro-
hrachium is probably a very recent genus which is in the act of immigrating
into fresh water, and has yet to complete the process. It would appear, to
judge from its widespread distribution in the lower and middle Mississippi
drainage, that M. ohione is the oldest species of the four in North America,
and that M. carcinus and M. acanthurus are of about equal age. Because of
its widespread occurrence in Texas rivers, M. carcinus is evidently less de¬
pendent on salt water to complete its breeding cycle than M. acanthurus.
A curious anomaly in the known distribution of M. carcinus is its absence
from the Mississippi River and the area between Florida and Louisiana. This
may be due primarily to inadequate records, but it is possible that the species
may not be able to compete with M. ohione in the heart of the latter’s range.
The two large species, M. carcinus and M. acanthurus , overlap on the Texas
coast and do not appear to be strong competitors, to judge from their
common occurrence in the Alcazar Pool at St. Augustine. The sporadic
distribution of M. olfersii is clearly a special case, inexplicable except as a
result of human intervention, on the basis of our present information.

The Texas Journal of Science

36

Figure 5. Distribution map indicating the occurrence of Macrobrachium

in the United States.

An interesting feature of the distribution of M. ohione is its apparent
restriction to a narrow portion of the South Atlantic seaboard in contrast
to its widespread occurrence in the Mississippi below St. Louis, and in the
Ohio River as far north as Washington County, far from the influence of
salt water (see the distribution map, Fig. 5). It also seems to be absent
from Florida. Insofar as tidewaters are concerned, this distribution is much
the same as that coastal marine fauna which skips southern Florida and is
found on the temperate northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico and the
southeast Atlantic coast below Cape Flatteras. This distribution pattern
is well indicated in Hutchins’ (1947) recent paper on temperature zona-
tion and geographical distribution. The northern distribution of M. ohione
along the Atlantic coast agrees substantially with the surface isotherm
of the minimum monthly mean of 45° F. It may be, in regions where this
shrimp is a comparatively recent immigrant, that it is still dependent on
bay waters to complete its breeding cycle and is accordingly dependent on
these temperature ranges as well as upon salinity. There is opportunity here
for investigations on the rate of dispersal of this shrimp in watersheds of
the southern Atlantic states which might produce interesting information
bearing on the general problem of geographical distribution and dispersal.
It is interesting to note that Traubman’s records for the occurrence of M.
ohione in the Ohio River at the northern limit of its range indicate that this
species occurs there only during the spring and summer months and that it
was taken abundantly only in extreme southwestern Ohio in late May and
early June.

Experiments conducted by Pora ( 1938) on the salinity tolerance of
Palaemon squilla, at palaemonid of the Black Sea which is found in salinities
from 8 to 20 0/00, and also in fresh water, indicated that his material was

North American River Shrimp

37

stenohalin in reaction although the species has a euryhalin distribution pat¬
tern. When specimens were exposed to higher salinities, mortality was
higher during the early hours of the experiment, but mortality decreased
after prolonged exposure to high salinities. The reaction to decreased salin¬
ity was the reverse, i.e., low mortality at the onset pf the experiment, fol¬
lowed by increasing mortality with prolonged exposure to lesser salinities
than the "normal” salinity from which the experimental specimens were
collected. The results of this experiment suggest, according to Pora, the
existence of physiological species. It would be interesting to conduct similar
experiments on M. ohione , for it is quite possible that this species, in view
of its distribution pattern, has two or more physiological races.

It was formerly believed that M. acanthurus and M. carcinus occurred
on both Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America, but more critical
examination of the material by Dr. Holthuis has failed to substantiate this.
Instead, we have pairs of closely related, comparable species:

Atlantic

M. acanthurus (Wiegmann)
M. carcinus (Linnaeus)

M. olfersii (Wiegmann)

Pacific

tenellum (Smith)
americanus Bate
digueti (Bouvier)

There appears to be no Pacific counterpart of M. ohione.

Some interest has been expressed in the possibility of artificial propa¬
gation of these shrimp. It seems probable that small numbers could be main¬
tained in lakes and spring fed ponds, but as yet our knowledge of the life
history of any species is too fragmentary to be of help to fish-culturists. Ac¬
cording to Gunter (1937) many apparently mature females of M. ohione
were not ovigerous during the breeding season, while McCormick (1934)
found that ovigerous females also had immature eggs in their ovaries. Evi¬
dently the breeding season of M. ohione is long, and this information indi¬
cates that either some of the shrimp may not spawn until the second year,
or that two year old shrimp do not spawn. Further study is necessary to
clarify this point, but the small size of many ovigerous females indicates
that the second alternative is more probable. The occurrence of M. acan¬
thurus in September and October indicates that this species has a later breed¬
ing season than M. ohione .

Little is known of the food preferences of any other species than M.
ohione. McCormick (op. cit.) suggested that this species is omniverous and
that it has been caught on green willow and cottonwood branches because
of its habit of "chewing the green leaves.” In Louisiana its food habits are
those of the typical shrimp — old meat and dead fish. It will also attack live
fish held in live boxes, sometimes "skinning catfish alive” according to
Gunter. Probably all of the species are predominantly meat eaters, taking
their food as they find it, alive or dead.

LITERATURE CITED

Gunter, Gordon — 1937 — Observations on the river shrimp, Macrobrachium ohionis (Smith).
Amer. Midi. Nat. 18: (6): 1038-1042, 3 figs.

- 1945 — Studies on marine fishes of Texas. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Texas

1 (1) : 1-190, 11 figs.

Hedgpeth, J. W. — 1947 — River shrimps. Progressive Fish-Cult., Oct. 1947 : 181-184, 9 figs.
Hutchins, L. W. — 1947 — The bases for temperature zonation in geographical distribution.
Ecol. Monogr. 17: 325-335, 8 figs.

Louisiana Conservation Commission — 1916 — Report of the . . , (1914-1916). Pp. 115, 104 (fig.)

38

The Texas Journal of Science

Luce, W. M. — 1933 — A survey of the fishery of the Kaskaskia River. Illinois Nat. Hist. Sur¬
vey Bull. 20(2) : 71-123.

McCormick, R. N. — 1933 — Studies on Macrobrachium ohionis, the large freshwater shrimp.

Abstr. Doctor’s Dis., Ohio State Univ. 11: 47-56.

1934 — Macrobrachium ohionis, the large fresh-water shrimp. Proc.
Indiana Acad. Sci. 43; 218-224, 3 pis.

Ortmann, A. E. — 1902 — The geographical distribution of freshwater decapods and its bear¬
ing on ancient geography. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 41 (171) : 267-400, 8 figs.

Pora, E. A. — 1938 — Sur le comportement de Palaemon squilla aux variations de salinite.

Ann. Sci. Univ. Jassy (2) 24 (2) : 327-331, 2 figs.

Price, W. A. — 1942— Migration of freshwater biota via stream confluences of coalescing
deltas. Jour. Geomorph. 5(2) : 160-170.

Rathbun, M. J. — 1902 — The Brachyura and Macrura of Porto Rico. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm.
20 (2) : 1-127, 26 figs.

Schmitt, W. L. — 1933 — Notes on shrimps of the genus Macrobrachium found in the United
States. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 23 (6) : 312-317.

Ward, H. B. and G. C. Whipple — 1918 — Fresh-Water Biology. New York: John Wiley and
Sons. ix4-ll.ll pp., 1547 figs.

FOOD STUDIES OF BLACK CRAPPIE FRY
(Pomoxis nigro-maculatus )

H. C. Sivells

Biology Department, Southwestern University
Georgetown, Texas

This study was undertaken for the purpose of determining the food of
black crappie (Pomoxis nigro-maculatus) fry in hatchery ponds, in order to
determine which of the zooplankton or phytoplankton are necessary for the
growth of these fry so that, by use of proper fertilizer this food supply can
be increased, thus increasing production of this species.

This work was done in the State Fish Hatchery at Tyler, Texas with
the permission of Mr. Marion Toole, Director of Fish Hatcheries for the
Game, Fish, and Oyster Commission of Texas.

The pond selected for this study was Number Twenty-five, located
on the west side of the hatchery. It is rectangular in shape, having a sur¬
face area of eight tenths acre and ranging in depth from three feet at the
south end to nine feet at the north end, in the drain box. The pond was
filled in January and one pair of broad crappie placed in the pond in Feb¬
ruary. Careful observation was made daily for signs of nesting and the
nest was first discovered March 7, on the west side of the pond, about forty
feet from the south end, in thirty inches of water. The nest was observed
daily and on March 16th, the male had left the nest. Although no fry
were then seen, it was assumed that the eggs had hatched, and the fry had
moved away from the nest. This date is taken as the date of hatching in
this paper.

Attempts were made to sample the pond at this stage, but it was not
until April 14th that the first fry were caught in dip-nets of fine mesh at
the drain box in the north end of the pond. These were placed in labeled
bottles containing five per cent formaldehyde and taken to the labora¬
tory, where they were measured for total length and the stomachs re¬
moved, placed on glass slides, and opened. The contents were examined
under the low power of a microscope, identified, counted and tabulated for
each fry. The fish were then grouped in age and length groups as shown in
Table I.

On April 14th fifty-eight fry were caught. These were very uniform
in size, being three-eighths of an inch, or 10 mm. in length. They were
estimated to be approximately 29 days old. Upon examination of the

Studies of Black Crappie Fry

39

Table I

Stomach Contents of Black Crappie Fry

Date

No. Appr.
of age
fry days

Len-

ght

mm

Crustacea
Bos- Cy-

mina clops

Naup¬

lius

Rotifers

Poly- Anuraea
arthra

Algae

Anabena

Apr. 14

58

29

10

393

337

98

174

—

May 2

36

47

16

258

403

28

337

May 2

18

47

19

114

51

58

42

68

May 24

21

69

22

18

23

118

May 24

26

69

25

—

58

286

247

June 6

26

82

28

56

586

238

140

June 6

41

82

32

47

1103

93

263

43 5

196

Totals

226

888

2561

515

1102

868

336

stomach contents, it was found that their diet consisted chiefly of crusta¬
ceans, such as Bosmina, Cyclops, and Nauplius, with some Polyarthra or
rotifers. Some individuals had as many as four Bosmina in the stomach,
while others had only one or two Cyclops. The Nauplius and Polyarthra
were never more than one to the stomach. It is interesting also that the
stomachs from this group contained Bosmina or Cyclops, but never both.

The sample taken on May 2nd consisted of fifty-four fry and here
was found a variation in the rate of growth. Thirty-six of these were five-
eighths of an inch, or 16 mm., in length and 18 were three-fourths of an
inch, or 19 mm., in length. Here again, food continued to be composed
mostly of crustaceans, principally Cyclops and Bosmina with a few
Nauplius. There was also an increase in rotifers, the Anurarea being the
most abundant with only a few Polyarthra present. In this group, however,
some of the stomachs contained both the Bosmina and the Cyclops. One
16 mm. fry had four Cyclops in its stomach. This group was forty-seven
days old.

On May 24th the third group of forty-seven fry were caught. These

36

40

The Texas Journal of Science

varied in size, twenty-one being 22 mm. or seven-eighths inch in length,
and twenty-six being 2 5 mm. or one inch long. These were estimated to be
sixty-nine days old. The stomach contents here did not follow the general
pattern of the two other groups. In this group the rotifers make the main
diet. Rotifers present were Polyarthra and Anuraea. These were present in
far greater numbers than the crustaceans, which were the main food of the
two earlier groups. This probably could be accounted for in part due to
the rise and fall in plankton populations as shown in the graph. During
this period, while the crustaceans were on an increase, the count was still
low and there was a large quantity of rotifers present. The graph was
based on data taken from weekly plankton counts of the pond, using the
counts on, or near, the dates when the fry were caught.

The last group of sixty-seven fry were taken June 6th, at the age of
eighty- two days. Twenty-six of these were 28 mm. or one and an eighth
inches long and forty-one were 32 mm. or one and a quarter inches in
length. In this group the main diet again was crustaceans, Cyclops, Nauplius,
and Bosmina in that order. However, rotifers were also used as food by this
group in quantity. A third element appeared in the stomachs of this group:
Anabena, a blue-green algae which was found in two-thirds of the fry ex¬
amined. However, there was, at this time, an unusual growth of Anabena
in this pond, causing a green coloration in the water.

From the data here presented, it would appear that black crappie feed
mainly on zooplankton consisting of small crustaceans and rotifers. While
the crustaceans seem to be preferred, the fry can make a diet of either, de¬
pending on which is the most abundant in the pond. As they increase in
size, they add to their diet phytoplankton, in this case a blue-green algae.

A SUMMARY OF NEW BUTTERFLIES FROM TEXAS
H. A. Freeman

Southern Methodist University
Dallas, Texas

A number of new records for North American Rhopalocera have been
found by the writer during the period from 1940-48. These have been
published by various authors in three different publications. In order to
summarize the data for Texan lepidopterists, only the species found to occur
in Texas are listed. The following arrangement is used: the family is listed,
with each species in that group being arranged according to generic order,
and the publication cited in which the new records appeared.

In addition to these new records five new species and four new sub¬
species were discovered by the writer in Texas. The same arrangement is
followed in listing this group except the type locality for each species or
subspecies is also given.

NEW RECORDS FOR NORTH AMERICA FOUND IN TEXAS

PAP1LION1DAE: Papilio lycophron pallas Gray — Ent. News 58(2),
Feb. 1947.

EUE1DIDAE: Heliconius petiveranus Doubleday — Ent. News 57(2),
Feb. 1946.

New Butterflies from Texas

41

NYMPH ALIDAE: Biblis hyperia aganisa Bdv. — Ent. News 57(2),
Feb. 1946; Cyclo gramma as teria (G. & S.) — Ent. News 57 (2), Feb. 1946;
Adelpba fessonia Hew. — Ent. News 57(2), Feb. 1946; Chlorippe pavon
Latr. — Ent. News 57 (2), Feb. 1946.

RIODINIDAE: Apodemia walkeri G. & S. — Can. Ent., June 1943;
Emesis einesia Hew. — Ent. News 57 (2) Feb. 1946.

LYCAENIDAE: Thecla bazochii Godt. — Ent. News 57 (2), Feb.
1946; Thecla cestri Reak. — Ent. News 58 (2), Feb. 1947; Strymon yojoa
Reak. — Ent. News 58 (2), Feb. 1947; Strymon spurina Hew. — Ent. News
58 (2), Feb. 1947.

HESPER11DAE: XJrhanus doryssus (Swains.) — Can. Ent. 77 (11),
Nov. 1945; Urbanus undulatus (Hew.) — Ent. News 59 (8), Oct. 1948;
Urbanus auginus auginulus ■ (G. & S.) — Can Ent. 77 (11), Nov. 1945;
Aguna asander (Hew.) — Ent. News 56 (4), April 1945; Aguna asander
f. panthius (H.-S.) — Ent. News 5 8 (7), July 1947; Astraptes anaphus
(Cram.) — Ent. News 56(1), Jan. 1945; Astraptes hopfferi (Ploetz) — ■
Ent. News 56 (4), April 1945; Pellicia bromius G. & S. — Can. Ent. 77
(11), Nov. 1945; Pellicia costimacula H.-S. — Ent. News 58 (7), July 1947;
Spathilepia clonius (Cram.) — Ent. News 56 (4), April 1945; Celaenorrhinus
fritgaertneri (Bailey) — Can. Ent. 77 (11), Nov. 1945; Carrhenes canescens
(Feld.) — Can. Ent. 77 (11), Nov. 1945; Gorgythion begga pyralina
(Mschlr.) — Ent. News 58(7), July 1947; A try tone eulogius Ploetz — Ent.
News 59 (8), Oct. 1948; Cobalus percosius G. & S. — Ent. News 59 (8),
Oct. 1948; Lerodea tyrtaens Ploetz — Field & Lab. 9 (2), May 1941; Lerodea
edata (Ploetz) — Ent. News 56 (4), April 1945; Synapte malitiosa (H.-S.)
— Ent. News 56 (4), April 194e; Perichares phocion dolores (Reak.) — Ent.
News 56 a1 ) , Jan. 1945.

NEW SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES FROM TEXAS

SATYR1DAE: Euptychia gemma freemani (Stallings & Turner) — Can.
Ent. 78: 136 (1946). (Type locality — Pharr, Texas).

NYMPH ALIDAE: Asterocampa clyton louisa Stallings & Turner —
Ent. News 58 (2), Feb. 1947. (Type locality — Pharr, Texas).

HESPERIIDAE: Celaenorrhinus stallingsi Freeman — Ent. News 57 (8),
Oct. 1946. (Type locality — Monterrey, Mexico, allotype, Pharr, Texas);
Thorybes pylades albosuffusa Freeman — Ent. News 54, March 1943. (Type
locality — Ft. Davis, Texas); Lerodea julia Freeman — Ent. News 56 (8),
Oct. 1945. (Type locality — Pharr, Texas); Amblyscirtes belli Freeman —
Ent. News 52, Feb. 1941 (Type locality — Lancaster, Texas); Amblyscirtes
erna Freeman — Ent. News 54, Jan. 1943 (Type locality — Palo Duro Can¬
yon, Texas) ; Calpodes evansi Freeman — Ent. News 57 (8), Oct. 1946 (Type
locality — Pharr, Texas).

MEGATHYMIDAE: Megathymus yu'ccae stallingsi Freeman — Ent.
News 54(9), Nov. 1943 (Type locality — Caldwell, Kansas; paratypes,
Lancaster and Palo Duro Canyon, Texas).

42

The Texas Journal of Science

NOTES ON HOME RANGES AND POPULATION DENSITY OF TWO
SPECIES OF HETEROMYID RODENTS IN SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS

Christopher L. York
The University of Texas

INTRODUCTION

Home ranges of the Merriam pocket mouse (Pero gnat hits merriami
gilvus) and the four-toed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriami merriami)
were studied by live trapping and marking in northern Presidio County,
Texas from June 9 to July 8, 1948. Thirty-one kangaroo rats were caught
a total of 200 times, and 3 5 pocket mice were caught a total of 172 times
on a 27.81 acre plot. This plot was located in the catclaw-tobosa association
of the Plains life belt of the Sierra Vieja biotic district (York, 1949).

The trapping was done on the C. Espy Miller ranch, about 10 miles
west of Valentine. Several members of the University of Texas 1948 field
party participated in the field work here reported, and I am indebted to
them for their contribution to this report,

DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAPPING AREA

The plot was located on the ZH Canyon alluvial fan, in pasture No.
18, on which sheep were being run. The ground was fairly level. No large
ditches ran through the original plot, but a braided stream pattern existed
with finger-like rows of boulders ranging in size from 18 inches in diameter
downward, the intervening space being filled with finely divided soil, de¬
rived from volcanic ash and decomposed igneous rocks. Catclaw ( Acacia
greggii Gray) and tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica (Buckl.) Benth.) made up
the majority of the vegetation, while the narrow-leafed yuccas (Yucca elata
Engelm.) were scattered throughout the area. Occasional corrodentia, also
known as tassajillo, (Opuntia leptocaulis DC.), crown of thorns (Koherlinia
Spinosa Zucc.), creosote bush (Larrea tridentata (D) Coville), barberry
(Berheris trifoliolata Moric.), sumac (Schmaltzia micropbylla Small), black
grama ( (Bouteloua eriopoda (Torr.) Torr.) covered most of the surface;
however, some spots were completely bare. After a slight rain which fell dur¬
ing the course of the study, grass seedlings sprouted, along with those of
Portidacca sp. and others; but all soon succumbed to the dryness and sum¬
mer heat. Clumps of catclaw varied in size from a single small bush of no
more than two feet in diameter to numerous bushes covering spots as great
as 1 5 feet in diameter. The level of the soil was usually higher within these
clumps than in the open. This can be attributed to the binding of blowing,
or washing, sand and debris about the bushes and to the action of rodents
and other animals in digging dens under this protection. Certain grasses
and f orbs, not otherwise manifest, could be found here also, protected from
the grazing of cattle and sheep.

The kangaroo rat and pocket mouse were the only small rodents re¬
corded from the plot. Some six or eight jackrabbits were observed feeding
on the plot each day. Numerous lizards were collected from the trap area.
These were the blue-bellied racer ( Cnemidophorus per plexus) and horned
lizards (Phrynosoma cor nut um ) and (P. modes turn) . Snakes included the
racer (Coluber flagellum testaceus ) , the common bull snake (Pituophis
catenifer sayi), the Big Bend patchnosed snake (Salvadora hexalepis deserti-

Two Heteromyid Rodents

43

cola) and the Davis Mountain rat snake ( Elaphe subocular is) . All these
snakes and lizards, with the possible exception of the horned lizard, use
mouse and rat burrows for dens. The snakes definitely enter into the eco¬
logical aspect of the population density of the heteromyids. Three predator
birds were seen in the area, namely the horned own ( Bubo virginianus) ,
Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swaimoni) and the red-tailled hawk (Buteo jamai-
censis ) .

METHODS

A trap plot was laid out in a grid pattern with numbered stakes one
hundred feet apart. The plot measured 900 feet by 900 feet, and had an
area of approximately 18.62 acres. Traps, designed for live-capture, con¬
structed of galvanized iron, after the model described by Blair (1941) were
placed in the immediate vicinity of the stakes, under what were judged to
be optimum conditions for catching the animals. In some cases the sets
were as far as 10 feet from the stake, but usually they were closer. The
traps were cleared from the quadrat after a period of four weeks and
placed in a ring, at numbered stakes, one hundred feet outside the original
plot. The hundred-foot interval between traps was maintained. This ring
of traps was run for two nights, after which the traps were moved another
one hundred feet outward and run for two more nights. This arrangement
actually did not have the corners covered since no additional traps were
used to encompass the area 1100 feet by 1100 feet, or 27.81 acres. Such
procedure was intended to determine the members of the populations whose
ranges extended outside the original plot. Normally all traps were set for
six night per week, leaving them in the sprung position each Saturday
morning and resetting and rebaiting late Sunday afternoon. When a given
animal had been captured in the same trap for three successive nights, the
trap was left sprung; hence the rodent would of necessity be forced to
wander elsewhere the following night. Traps were left closed during the
day to prevent the accidental capture of animals, which would have resulted
in their death during the high daytime temperatures. Bait used during this
study consisted of a mixture of wheat, milo maize, and corn chops. Large
red ants were numerous in the area and carried off considerable quantities
of bait, necessitating use of greater portions than should have been sufficient
under conditions of non-competition. These ants were also responsible for
the death of several animals which had evidently been caught early enough
after the set was made to give ample time for the ants to stupefy or even
kill and partially destroy the carcasses. The entry of the ants into the traps
was also the probable cause of catching several lizards, which evidently were
seeking ants as food.

The traps were run each morning at an early hour, before temperatures
became fatally high. The animals were examined for sex and apparent age,
and then marked if they had not been previously caught. Kangaroo rats
were marked by punching notches in the edges of the ears and by clipping
toes in accordance with a predetermined pattern to indicate the field number
of the animal. The pocket mice were marked by clipping toe tips in con¬
junction with a single ear punch.

Upon release of the animal, it was followed to its hole. The distance
and location of each hole from the stake was recorded. The kangaroo rats
frequently appeared to be somewhat lost when first released, but after a
short interval of becoming oriented they would find a trail to the nest.

44

The Texas Journal of Science

Each animal apparently had several dens. Any hole in which an animal re¬
mained for several minutes was considered its den. Animals were observed
to desert burrows shortly after entry in favor of others which were not
necessarily those they had previously occupied.

HOME RANGES OF POCKET MICE

Ten or more captures were considered sufficient for the determination
of the home ranges of any animal. Of the 3 6 pocket mice caught only five
(three males and two females) were captured 10 or more times. These five
were caught an average of 13 times, the greatest number of times being
1 5 captures for number five, a young female. These five animals were
caught in twenty different traps for an average of four traps per mouse.
Refuge was sought in twenty-one different holes for an average of about
four holes per mouse.

Home ranges were determined by use of the method described by Blair
(1940) allowing half the distance from the trap to the next trap outside
of the range. The greatest area occupied by a pocket mouse (a young fe¬
male) was 5.40 acres. The smallest range was that of a young adult male
caught thirteen times in only two traps to give an area of only 0.46 acres.
This animal took refuge in only four dens, while number five utilized five
holes. The average home range for the males was 1.88 acres, while that of
the two females was 4.88 acres, or more than twice the area covered by the
males. The numbers are too few, however, to indicate whether or not this
difference is significant.

Only three individuals captured within the original plot were caught
in the outer rings during the last four days. Number 18, a young adult
male, was the only one of these considered in home range calculations, with
14 catches in two traps within the original plot. This mouse was caught in
both of the outer rings.

Examination of areas occupied by individuals caught less than ten
times is of interest. Of six pocket mice (three males and three females)
taken seven to nine times, the males average 2.53 acres. This is approxi¬
mately 1.7 times as great as the average area occupied by the males which
were captured 10 or more times. The females averaged 3.89 acres, or about
one-fourth less than the area occupied by the females captured 10 or more
times. Number four (a female), taken eight times in six different traps,
had a home range of 5.72 acres, which was. equal to that of number five
(a female) which was taken 15 times. It should be pointed out that while
validity increases with the number of times an animal is captured the home
range does not necessarily expand.

When considering the location of the dens in relation to size of home
range the results were somewhat different from the above figures. Calcula¬
tion of the home ranges in this case were made assuming a distance of one-
half that between traps beyond the den (50 feet) and including the traps
visited. In each case the home range was greater than if calculated on the
basis of trap location alone. The increase in the case of mouse number three
amounted to 1.16 acres. The males were found to occupy an average area
of 1.8 8 acres as compared with the females with 5.86 acres. This averages
3.47 acres when disregarding sex.

During the period of almost five weeks the 27.81 acres was found to
have 3 5 pocket mice living on the plot, or one mouse per 0.79 acres. This

Two Heteromyid Rodents

45

figure is not absolute since all mice were not captured on the same day.
The greatest number of mice captured during a single week was 59 during
the second week. Forty-six were caught during the fourth week. Thirteen
were captured the first week, forty the third week and seventeen during
the fifth week. Some individuals apparently were passing through the area
and were captured a single time only or fell prey to hawks, owls or other
predators. The probability of the animals becoming wary and refusing to
enter traps is very doubtful. There is some evidence of their becoming
"trap-bums” learning to rely on the bait for sole source of food. Two were
known to have died in the traps.

HOME RANGES OF KANGAROO RATS

Home ranges of kangaroo rats were determined in the same manner as
for pocket mice. Four males were caught 5 6 times in 26 different traps for
an average of 14 captures per animal. Refuge was sought in 29 holes. The
average range was 6.3 8 acres. The largest comprised 8.39 acres, and the
smallest comprised 2.90 acres. Four females were captured 40 times for an
average of 10 captures per animal. Twenty-four traps were entered by these
females. The average home range in this instance was 3.3 9 acres which was
only a little more than one-half the area occupied by the males. The least
area comprised 1.15 acres, while the largest comprised 5.39 acres.

Examination of the trapping records of three animals is of special in¬
terest. Number 10, a male, had ranged consistently in the southwestern
corner of the plot, having been captured 1 5 times in six traps. On the
second morning after placing the first ring about the area this animal was
found in a trap diagonally across the plot. The distance of movement from
the last trap entered was approximately 1,200 feet. Number 15, a female,
had occupied a range in the southeastern portion of the quadrat prior to the
change of layout. On the first morning after placing the inner ring she
was found in a trap immediately outside the regular range, about 150 feet
from the trap last occupied. The second morning this animal was found
1,240 feet across the quadrat. This was the last time the animal was caught.
Number 14, a male, which had ranged along the northern edge of the
quadrat was captured in the inner ring on both mornings it was run. The
place of these captures was only 240 feet from where it was previously
caught. The second day of running the outer ring this male was caught
about 580 feet from where it was taken in the inner ring.

As in the case of the pocket mice, home ranges calculated from the
trap data alone were found to be smaller than those taking den location
also into consideration. The males were found to have an average home
range area of 6.89 acres as compared with a range of 6.3 8 acres based on
trapping alone. The females had an average estimated range of 4.26 acres
against a range of 3.39 acres from the trap data. The most outstanding
example of gain in size of home range due to calculation method was that
of Number 16. This animal was captured 12 times in four traps which
were located along the south edge of the quadrat. Calculations from the
trap records gave an area of only 1.15 acres but consideration of den loca¬
tions increased the area to 2.60 acres.

Comparison of average range size of the males to that of the females
shows the males to have covered 1.57 times the area covered by females.
The greater number of captures, 59, was during the second week, with 45
and 43 during the third and fourth weeks respectively. The first week of

46

The Texas Journal of Science

only four days netted only 29 animals, while the fifth week, of only four
days, with traps circling the main plot gave 2 5 animals.

SUMMARY

Thirty-one kangaroo rats ( Dipodomys merriami merriami ) and thirty-
five pocket mice (Perognathiis merriami gilvus) were live-trapped and re¬
captured 200 and 172 times respectively on 27.81 acres of desert scrub land
in northern Presidio County, Texas. The plot was on the catclaw-tobosa
association as defined by the field party. The density of kangaroo rats was
found to be one male per 1.63 acres and one female per 1.91 acres. The
density of pocket mice was one male per 1.65 acres and one female per
1.46 acres. Five pocket mice were captured 10 or more times. The average
home range of three males, computed from trap data was found to be 1.48
acres and that of two females was 3.90 acres. Consideration of den location
in combination with the trap records indicated larger home ranges as fol¬
lows: males 1.8 8 acres and females 5.87 acres. Six pocket mice captured
seven to nine times had average home ranges of 2.5 3 acres for the males
and 3.89 acres for the females. No increase was found when considering
den location of these males. Only one female extended its range to give an
average of 3.94 acres. Of thirty-one kangaroo rats caught eight were cap¬
tured 10 or more times. The average home range based on trap records for
four males was 6.38 acres, and for four females it was 3.39 acres. When
considering den location in conjunction with trap records the average range
of the males was 6.89 acres and that of the females was 4.26 acres.

Home ranges of males were found to overlap, but there was no evi¬
dence of sharing dens. Females were likewise found to have overlapping
ranges, and again there was no apparent sharing of dens. Ranges of males
and females were found to overlap, which would be assumed to be the
normal procedure during the months of June and July.

LITERATURE CITED

Blair, W. Frank — 1940 — Home ranges and populations of the meadow vole in southern
Michigan. J. Wildlife Management 4: 149-61, 1 fig.

- 1941 — A simple and effective live trap for small animals. J. Wildlife

Management 5: 191-93, 1 fig.

— 1942 — Size of home range and notes on the life history of the woodland
deei’-mouse and eastern chipmunk in northern Michigan. J. Mam¬
malogy 23 : 27-36, 1 fig.

York, Christopher L. — 1949 — The physical and vegetational basis for animal distribution in
the Sierra Vieja Range of Southwestern Texas. Tex. J. Sci. 1 (3) : 46-62, 2 figs.

THE PHYSICAL AND VEGETATIONAL BASIS FOR ANIMAL
DISTRIBUTION IN THE SIERRA VIEJA RANGE
OF SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS

Christopher L. York
The University of Texas

INTRODUCTION

A survey of the ecological distribution of the vertebrates was made
in the Sierra Vieja region of southwestern Texas from June 3 to July 9,
1948. The survey party numbered 22 members under the direction of Dr.
W. Frank Blair. The individual members of the party undertook various
projects designed to cover the several phases of the whole problem. A. W.

Physical and Vegetational Basis for Animal Distribution 47

Anderson studied feeding habits of the mule deer; Clay E. Miller, Jr., J. B.
Nance and the late Harry E. Steincamp trapped the larger mammals; Homer
W. Phillips, Wilmot A. Thornton and John W. Duke, Jr. specialized on the
birds of the area; Alvin G. Flury, D. L. Jameson, T. M. Burke and A. L.
Carroll concentrated on the reptiles and amphibians; J. L. Reagan and Sam
M. Await studied the pocket gopher populations and habits; R. S. Osborn
studied the habits of the rock squirrels; while Robert Zschappel, R. J. Kemp,
Paul W. Collier, W. W. Webster, Keith E. James, Ralph E. Fuge, Virgil
H. Roan and the author investigated the small mammals. The present report
considers the physical environment and vegetation of the Sierra Vieja region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are much indebted to C. Espy Miller and family for the privilege
of using the old army cantonment as housing for the expedition, and for
the use of the ranch as the area of principal study, as well as for other
courtesies too numerous to mention and to B. C. Tharp for aid in the
determination of the plants collected in the area.

EARLIER INVESTIGATIONS

Botanists as well as zoologists who have visited this area are few in
number. Great distances over poor roads and with little means of natural
support have discouraged all but the most hardy. Early biological explora¬
tions in Trans-Pecos Texas were more or less incidental extra-activities of
a few interested members of boundary survey parties sent out by the
United States Army. Dr. Valery Havard, U. S. A., reported his observa¬
tions which covered the period from 1880 to 1883. His report in two
parts described in a general manner the vegetation of western and southern
Texas and pointed out the possible value of the area and its vegetation to
agriculture and industry. He included a brief description of the topography
and also the limited meteorological data accumulated to the time of writ¬
ing.

Ecological observations have been reported by Neally (1880); later
by Bray (1901:207; 1905:7; 1906:76); also by Bailey (1905:33 ); and
by Carter and Cory (1932:24). The most intensive treatment, limited to
a small area, was given by Cottle (1931:105; 1932:121). Dr. Mary S.
Young was probably the first well trained botanist to investigate the flora.
Death halted her research while she was still in her prime. Unfortunately
her field notes remain unpublished (1914).

W. Frank Blair did intensive bioecological investigations in the Davis
Mountains (1940). L. C. Flinckley has done considerable work in the
Trans-Pecos (1944) having pointed out the contrasts in the vegetation
of the Sierra Tierra Viejas (1947). He is continuing investigations as an
avocation while teaching in Sul Ross College, Alpine, Texas. Working with
Hinckley is Barton H. Warnock of the same college faculty. L. H. Shinners,
V. L. Cory, Eula Whitehouse and C. L. Lundell with various associates
have worked under the auspices of Southern Methodist University. Marjorie
Anthony, of the University of Michigan, devoted about five months of
1948 investigating the Cactaceac of the Big Bend. The author and associates
spent only five weeks during the drier portion of the summer, hence the
sample obtained can not be considered as fully representative.

48

The Texas Journal of Science

PHYSIOGRAPHY

The Sierra Viejas, likewise referred to as the Tierra Viejas, or the Sierra
Tierra Viejas, are located in the Basin and Range Physiographic Province
of Fennemann (1931) and the Mexican Plateau Region of the Cordilleran
Plateau of Atwood (1940). They lie between the Chinati Mountains to the
south and the Van Horns to the northwest, roughly paralleling the Rio
Grande in the upper Big Bend territory. These three ranges are somewhat en
echelon in arrangement. The Sierra Viejas extend from western Jeff Davis
County southward into Presidio County for a distance of approximately
40 miles, between 3 0 degrees and 12 minutes and 30 degrees and 45 minutes
north latitude and 104 degrees 32 minutes and 104 degrees 48 minutes
west longitude. The trend is in general north-northwest to south-southeast,
which is characteristic of most of the mountains of this province. This
range is composed of eastward dipping volcanic rocks of Tertiary age, to
the east of which is found the Valentine Plain and to the west, below the
Rim Rock, the Rio Grande Plain (Fig. 1). The Valentine Plain occupies
an aggraded basin having an elevation of approximately 4500 feet. The
Sierra Viejas attain an altitude of about 6467 feet in Vieja Peak (Fig. 1).
Several other peaks are above 5000 feet, all being the result of differential
erosion of fault blocks.

The drainage pattern is largely consequent, with the canyons north of
Vieja Pass incising their channels in an east-west direction; however, to
the south where the uplift was the greatest, the tendency is almost in a
north-south direction; for example, the major portion of ZH (Zeb Holland)
Canyon flows northward to join Cottonwood Canyon, which comes from
a northwesterly direction and continues eastward to the Valentine Plain
(Fig. 2). Musgrave Canyon, located on the southern slope empties onto the
Rio Grande Plain. In the vicinity of the Miller Ranch the chief canyons
include Knox, Box, Fox Hollow, Canyon 96, and West Well Canyon in
addition to those previously named. All of these canyons empty onto the
Valentine Plain. Such a pattern is typical of the drainage systems of this
physiographic province. Wide alluvial fans are found at the mouths of the
canyons, their surfaces being covered with boulders of varying sizes beside
the braided channels, with intervening areas filled with graded, finer sedi¬
ments. Such surface features indicate a history of numerous flash floods,
with the possibility that at some earlier time in Tertiary history the area
may have been subjected to periods of much heavier rainfall than at present.

The Valentine Plain is apparently flat (Fig. 2) ; in fact, it gives the
impression of sloping toward the mountains, except for the indications in
the washes. Ranchers, with the assistance of the Soil Conservation Service
agents, have done considerable work in reducing mass wasting of the sur¬
face soils. The northward flowing Chispa Draw and its tributary, Capote
Draw, both intermittent streams, are the principal drainage members within
the Plain. During the greater portion of the year their channels are dry.

The Rio Grande Plain is a highly dissected depositional surface drained
by various tributaries of the river. Green River, also known as Van Horn
Creek, and Capote Creek with its tributary Walker Creek are the principal
branches within the vicinity of our work. These streams are gradually
eroding the mountains, pushing the Rim Rock to the east, which process
will eventually give outside drainage to the Valentine Plain.

Physical and Vegetational Basis for Animal Distribution 49

GEOLOGY

The southwestern Pecos area has not been closely examined by geologists
except in a limited number of locations. Information available is largely
the outcome of reconnaissance projects; for example Baker (1927) covered
about 3 5 sections per day when checking this area. In recent years graduate
students of the University of Texas Department of Geology have investi¬
gated small tracts on a more intensive scale.

Following the withdrawal of Upper Cretaceous seas this area was
covered by terrestrial alluvia. During the last portion of Cretaceous times
the Rocky Mountains were born, and some effects were doubtless felt within
this portion of the Trans-Pecos area. However, the Sierra Viejas are prob¬
ably of later origin, from intermittent volcanic activity which occurred
during late Cretaceous and early Tertiary, covering the older sediments
with layers of various volcanics. Erosion between eruptions is believed to
have virtually erased certain layers, leaving scant remnants in isolated
spots to indicate existence of once more extensive areas. The Rim Rock
country possesses rhyolitic volcanics of as much as 4,000 feet thickness, of
which over half is tuff. Lava flows varying from acid to very basic are
interbedded with tuffs, tuff breccias and sediments. The Rim Rock ridge
or cuesta is composed of a rare volcanic rock known as quartz-pantellerite.
Fresh surfaces of this rock show a greenish, finely crystalline, ground mass
surrounding orthoclase phenocrysts. Weathered surfaces of this rock are
dull, orange yellow to reddish brown. Sills and dikes of considerable number
have been intruded into the sediments and volcanics.

Some of the most extensive faulting of the Trans-Pecos occurred in
the Sierra Viejas during Mid-Tertiary. One long fault is responsible for the
origin of the Rim Rock, formed by the upthrust block. Erosion of the
softer sediments below, aided by the structure of the volcanics above, has
moved the scarp to the east as much as six miles in places (Baker 1927:52).
Tilting of this block produced an interior drainage basin to the east between
the Sierra Viejas and the Davis Mountains. The filling of this basin with
detritus from the slopes has formed what is referred to as the Valentine
Plain or Chispa Flat. In numerous ranch wells stock water is obtained at
various depths. Bed rock was encountered in a well at Valentine at 872 feet.

The area between the Rim Rock and the mountains across the Rio
Grande, following the orogenic action of early Tertiary, became a lake;
in fact, at various times the valley drained by this river has been a series
of lakes reaching from the vicinity of Presidio to El Paso and beyond.
During the lake stage lacustrine sediments were laid down ranging from
fine silts to coarse conglomerates. When at last the river cut its canyons to
drain these lakes, erosion of the lake bottom deposits rapidly cut the area
up into the rough condition which has been maintained through rejuvena¬
tion. Numerous faults within the area account for some of the escarpments
of the plain. Anticlines, which were the result of folding during Mid-
Tertiary, have been eroded to produce other scarps. Absence of triangular
facets indicates lack of faulting within recent times.

soils

The soils of the area have been described by Carter (1931: 168-178)
as Reeves and Verhalen in the basins, with Rough Stony Land and Brewster

50

The Texas Journal of Science

soils on the mountains. Soils along the Rio Grande are designated as Gila.
Reeves Soils are characterized by light brown to ashy-gray calcareous sur¬
faces which grade into calcareous subsoils of light shades of yellow or buff
color. Very sandy soils may have a very low organic content, having been
developed under arid or semi-arid conditions. The structure is open allow¬
ing rapid penetration of air and water. The texture ranges from sandy to
silty-clay loam with areas having considerable gravel. The surface is almost
devoid of grass, creosote bush (Larrea tridentata (DC.) Cav.) being almost
the only species capable of maintaining itself in appreciable amounts.

Verhalen soils are characterized by chocolate brown or reddish-brown
surface soils, grading into reddish subsoils which rest on almost pure, white
calcium carbonate or pinkish calcareous clays. Near the igneous mountains,
such as the Sierra Viejas, Verhalen Clay and Clay Loam are the chief soils
of the series. Thick growth of tobosa grass occupy these almost flat surfaces
and are referred to as "tobosa flats.” The texture of these soils is fine and
the areas are so nearly flat that water may stand for some time following
a rain.

Brewster Soils are poorly developed, very thin, stony soils which are
red or reddish brown in color, resting upon bed rock or broken rock par¬
ticles. Stony loam occurs on the foothills and smoother areas of the igneous
mountains. The admixture of broken stone aids in water penetration;
however, the amount of soil present is never great due to erosion. Grama
grasses are usually plentiful on these soils.

The roughest, most precipitous areas are designated as Rough Stony
Land. Bluffs, narrow canyons, steep slopes and some areas of rolling table
lands are included in this category. A fairly good cover of grama grass,
constituting good range, occurs on igneous surfaces, whereas corresponding
cover on limestone surfaces affords poorer range.

Gila soils are limited to narrow strips along the Rio Grande. These
soils have been utilized as farm land. Surface soils are grayish-brown, light
brown or brown. Subsoils are of slightly lighter shades of the same colors
as the surface soils immediately above. A limited amount of organic matter
is present in these calcareous friable soils.

CLIMATE

The climate of the Sierra Vieja Range is arid to semi-arid, lying within
the region of 10-15 inches of mean annual rainfall (Kincer 1922: 6-7).
No class A Weather Bureau station is located near the area of study, and
records are limited to those of precipitation taken at Miller Ranch Head¬
quarters by the owner in cooperation with the Weather Bureau. These
data cover a period from 1937 to date, and unfortunately are incomplete
in that no records were made during several months (this is also true of
numerous other cooperative station records). Since there are no records of
temperature, cloud cover, frost free days, wind direction, etc., available
for the specific area, data, in so far as possible, from neighboring collection
points are offered for comparison.

Length of frostless season for the Sierra Viejas has been assumed as
comparable to that of the Davis Mountains to the east by Hinckley (1947:
163) who offers data obtained at Mount Locke Observatory, altitude 6791
feet, showing about 200 days as an average. Hinckley believes a somewhat
longer period would prevail on Vieja Peak with only 6467 feet altitude.

MEAN TEMPERATURES

Physical and Vegetation al Basis for Animal Distribution 5 1

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Miller Ranch (1937-1948)

Inches 0.72 0.56 0.44 0.54 1.07 1.94 2.14 2.36 2.53 1.78 0.67 0.82 14.43

% 5.04 3.19 3.05 3.80 7.41 13.44 14.13 16.35 17.53 12.33 4.71 5.69

1948 in. 0.13 0.27 T 0.14 2.16 0.63 1.19

52

The Texas Journal of Science

Such data can hardly be considered comparable to conditions existing on
the Valentine Plain or in the Rio Grande Basin biotic district due to greater
altitude differences. Frost data are available from Alpine indicating an
average of frostless period of 22 5 days over an interval of 17 years. Presidio,
on the Rio Grande, has recorded an average period of 234 days during the
same interval. A difference in altitude is to be considered as well as the dif¬
ference in latitude, as ample reason for the longer season at Presidio. Actually
a number of years record no late frost at either station, but rather the last
day on which ice was observed.

Alpine, from 1931-1947, lists an average of 200 days of clear skies
against 113 partly cloudy and 52 cloudy days, with 75 days producing
measurable rainfall. Records for Presidio during the same years are incom¬
plete; however, an average of 37 rainy days is listed. It is highly probable
that the conditions on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Viejas and adjoining
valleys would be similiar to those at Alpine, while the Rio Grande Basin
district of this study would resemble the conditions at Presidio to a greater
extent than those at Alpine.

Temperature data for the same two stations are available showing a
mean annual temperature at Alpine of 63 degrees F. (Table 1) as compared
with 68.7 degrees F\ at Presidio (Table 1). The former is noted for its
mild summer temperatures while the latter is known for its contrastingly
high readings. Records of June, July and August 1948 at Presidio showed
monthly mean temperatures of 10 5.0 degrees F., 102.3 degrees F. and
102.3 degrees F. for these respective months against 79.4 degrees F., 78.7
degrees F. and 79.1 degrees F. at Alpine for the corresponding months.
These means taken at Presidio are not typical of all years, but are the
highest figures shown during the period of record. Recording thermometers
were not maintained by the field party during the study; hence it can only
be assumed that the area experienced temperatures between those observed
at the two mentioned stations.

Alpine shows an average of 17.14 inches of rainfall per year over the
past 17 years, 61% of which h-s been recorded during the months of June,
July, August and September (Table 1). Balmorrhea on the northeast side
of the Davis Mountains, at an elevation of 322 5 feet, shows an average of
14.57 inches per year (1924-1945). Fifty-six percent of this precipitation
fell during June, July, August and September. Presidio records for the
seventeen year period indicate an annual average of 9.87 inches, with 58%
occurring during June, July, August and September. Miller ranch records
covering the years 1937 to date are incomplete, but indicate 14.43 inches
precipitation falling during the period.

As Hinckley has suggested (1947:155), precipitation can be assumed
to be heavier higher on the slopes of the Sierra Viejas than at the ranch
headquarters. Mesophytic vegetation on these slopes supports this assump¬
tion. Some indication of cycles of maxima in precipitation for the region
are noted (Fig. 2), Alpine and Balmorrhea having received greatest amounts
during 1932 and 1941; however, an insufficient span of years of recording
precludes any definite statement as to the existence of such a cycle. Presidio
data do not show comparative trends in 1932 but correspond very closely
in 1941. Shorter records at Miller ranch headquarters correspond fairly
well in trend with those at Alpine and Balmorrhea; hence the dry season
experienced during the summer of 1948 should have been anticipated, and

Physical and Vegetational Basis for Animal Distribution 53

will probably be repeated in 1949. Should the repetition occur, an above
average record may be expected in 1950.

During the first five months of 1948 the precipitation recorded at the
Miller ranch amounted to only 0.54 inch. On June 1st. a rain of 1.45 inches
fell which accounted for the general greenness of the range at the time the
field party arrived on the third day of the month. Seedlings of both grasses
and forbs appeared, but since there was no more rain until the 12 th of the
month when 0.03 inch fell these dried up. On June 19th a rain of 0.13 inch
fell to be followed by 0.17 inch on the 20th. Seedlings again appeared and
grew for a short time before wilting and dying. Perennials put out fresh
growth and the range looked fair for a few days. The next rain, amounting
to 0.08 inches, fell on July 6th. The area is characterized by having showers
in the summer afternoons. Mornings are usually clear, with clouds gradually
building up over the Valentine Plain and drifting about over the area until
sometime in the afternoon when showers occur. This gives a spotted rain¬
fall which has been aptly described by Havard (1885:451) “There is no
well-defined rainy season in Western Texas; rainfall in fitful 'spells’ at any,
and often the most inopportune, time, with long intervals of drought. Two
or three months receive one-half of the yearly precipitation. It is the season
of sudden rises and floods which, in a few hours, cause irreparable damages
and again as promptly subside, drained away by timberless arroyos, so that
but a comparatively small amount of moisture is retained in the earth and
penetrates into the subsoil.”

Evaporation data for Balmorrhea only are available for the period of
study. June evaporation was 12.57 inches. Unfortunately there was no record
made of precipitation during this month for comparison. During July,
1948, evaporation amounted to 10.56 inches as compared with 0.85 inches
of precipitation. It may be assumed that a similar condition exists at the
other stations since the amount of cloudiness and insolation is comparable.
In the light of the various similarities in data at the neighboring stations it
is assumed that a correlation exists also at the Miller Ranch.

vegetation

This area has been included in “Creosote Bush (Southern Desert
Shrub)” region of the United States by Shantz and Zon (1924:23), while
Tharp (1928:17-24) in his dividing the state into regions of natural vege¬
tation assigned it to the “Sotol-lechuguilla” and “Mountains” regions.

BIOTIC PROVINCES AND LIFE BELTS

The Chihuahuan biotic province as designated by Dice (1943:4) com¬
prising all Trans-Pecos Texas, portions of the Pecos and Rio Grande valleys
of southern New Mexico, and the major portion of the Mexican Plateau
Region, includes the area covered by this study. The Sierra Viejas, with the
valley to the east, is designated as the Sierra Vieja biotic district, while
the area along the Rio Grande, due to its differences is designated as the
Rio Grande Basin biotic district.

Biogeographical units recognizable in mountainous regions have been
designated by Dice and Blossom as life belts (1937:45) which are thought
to be the outgrowth of climatic differences resulting from varied elevations
and exposures. A life belt is characterized by one or more ecological associa¬
tions and is a subdivision of a biotic district. Similar biotic districts may

54

The Texas Journal of Science

contain very similar life belts, modified only by their peculiarities of elevation
and exposure and by other physical differences. The Sierra Vieja district
may be divided into two easily recognizable life belts similar to those desig¬
nated by Blair (1940:8) in the Davis Mountains. The Valentine Plain,
lying between the Davis Mountains and the Sierra Viejas, is designated as
the plains belt, while the mountains proper are designated as the roughland
belt. The latter differs from that of the Davis Mountains roughland belt
in being only 6467 feet high (Vieja Peak) as compared with the 8 3 82 feet
altitude of Mt. Livermore (Fig. 1). The Rio Grande plain biotic district
may also be divided into the flood-plain belt and the upland belt, well
marked vertical entities.

PLAINS LIFE BELT

The Plains life belt may be considered to comprise the areas of 5000
feet elevation or lower. The associations recognized in this belt are seven in
number, of which the tobosa-grama covers the greatest area, while the
catclaw-tobosa association is second in size.

CATCLAW-CEDAR ASSOCIATION

This association may be found at the mouths of the larger canyons,
for example, that of ZH Canyon. The soil is thin, and is covered with a
heavy shingle of water deposited boulders. Practically all the soil is the
result of depositional action by the waters of the intermittent streams. The
rough, rocky surface enables rainwater to enter more readily than would be
possible if the rocks were absent. This factor is responsible for the vegeta¬
tion of greater size than is supported farther out on the plain or between
the allluvial fans near the base of the mountains.

A 100 x 100 foot quadrat was found to support the following listed
species: 80 catclaw ( Acacia Greggii A. Gray); 42 cedars (Juniperus mono-
sperma Engelm.); 5 Yuccas ( Yucca Torreyi Shafer); 3 prickly pears
(Opuntia Engelmannia Salm-Dyck) ; approximately 15% grass cover.
These grasses consisted of tobosa grass (Hilar ia mutica (Buckl.) Benth.) ;
three awns (Aristida sp.) ; grama grasses (Bouteloua sp.) and bluestems
( Andropogon sp.). Other shrubs were Ephedra sp.; mesquite (Prosopis
juliflora (Swartz) DC.; barberry (Berheris trifoliolata Moric.) ; Opuntia
arborescent Engelm.; Krameria parviflora Benth.); white brush (Aloysia
lycioides Cham.). F’orbs include (Rhyne hosia texana Torr. and Gray);
(Eriogonum sp.) ; (Talinum aurantiacum Engelm.); ( Commelina dianthi-
folia Delile) ; Croton (Croton corymbulosus Engelm.); (Lactuca sp.);
(Dichondra argentea Willd.) .

CATCLAW-TOBOSA ASSOCIATION

Beyond the Catclaw-cedar association from the canyon mouths one
finds the Catclaw-tobosa association. This association occupies the portion
of the Valentine Plain made up of medium coarse gravels to fairly fine
sediments, and only scattering strings of larger boulders. The surface is
somewhat level and is covered with 62 catclaw (Acacia Greggii A. Gray)
clumps of varying size. Between these clumps is found approximately 50%
cover of grasses. The predominant Tobosa grass (Elilaria mutica (Buckl.)
Benth.) makes up about half of the total grass cover. Grama grasses
(Bouteloua hirsuta and B. curtipendula (Michx.) Torr.), three awns
(Aristida sp.), Bluestem (Andropogon sp.), panic grasses ( Panicum sp.),

Physical and Vegetational Basis for Animal Distribution 5 5

are all scattering about largely under the protection of the catclaw. The
quadrat, 100’ x 100’, also had the shrubs: three (Yucca data Engelm.) ;
one (Opuntia leptocaulis DC.); barberry (Berberis trifoliolata Moric.); six
( Ephedra sp.) prickly pear ( Opuntia Engelmannia Salm-Dyck) ; Forbs in¬
cluded (Talinum aurantiacum Engelm.); (Lactuca sp.; {Cucurbit a foeti-
dissima H.B.K.) ; (Apodanthera undulata Gray); (Solatium elaegnifolium
Cav.) ; ( Commelina dianthifolia Delile) ; (Ipomoea sp.); ( Portulacca sp.);
(Sid a neomexicana Gray); and (Croton corymbulosus Engelm.).

TOBOSA-GRAMA ASSOCIATION

The tobosa-grama association occupies the areas of the Valentine Plain
composed of the more finely divided sediments. These soils are generally
found toward the center of the plain from the catclaw-tobosa association
where the waters coming from the mountains had lost their velocity and
the silt settled out after the coarser sediments had been left behind. Only
occasional individual shrubs are found, with almost 100 per cent grass
cover except for areas denuded by overgrazing, or due to erosion which is
in reality the outcome of the effects of overgrazing. Practically pure stands
of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica (Buckl.) Benth.) alternate with grama
grasses (Bouteloua hirsuta Lag.) and (B. sp.). Along the washes some few
forbs are to be found including ironweed (Yernonia marginata (Torr.)
Raf.) , stink weed (Helinium sp.), etc. but these are outstandingly limited
in number.

CREOSOTE BUSH-CATCLAW-BLACKBRUSH ASSOCIATION

The creosote bush-catclaw-blackbrush association is typified by an
area near the Roosevelt well (in pasture number 16 of the Miller ranch).
The soil is alluvial fan deposits comprised of fairly coarse particles mixed
with some finer sediments and caliche encrustations occurring in spots.
Generally speaking there is a high degree of porosity. Check quadrats showed
a predominance of catclaw (Acacia Greggii Gray); creosote bush (Larrea
tridentata DC.) Cav.); and blackbrush (M icrorhamnus ericoides Gray).
Other shrubs include huisache (Acacia comtricta Benth.); narrow-leafed
yucca (Yucca elata Engelm.) ; (Yucca Torreyi Shafer) ; ( Opuntia lepto¬
caulis DC.); (O. Engelmannia Salm-Dyck); (Condalia lycioides (Gray)
Web.); (Ephedra sp.); barberry (Berberis trifoliolata Moric); sumac ( Rhus
microphylla Engelm.); althorn (Koberlinia spinosa Succ.) ; Forbs include:
(Apodanthera undulata Gray); (Cheno podium sp.); Devil’s Claw ( Martynia
parviflora Wooton) ; (Perezia sp.) ; ( Chamaesyce sp. ) ; (Kalis troemia parvi-
flora Norton); (Amaranthus sp.) ; (Cirsium sp.) ; (Talinum aurantiacum
Engelm.); and (Ibervillea tenuisecta (Gray) Small). Grasses include: (Hil¬
aria mutica (Buckl.) Benth.), (H. belangeri (Steud.) Nash), (Panicum
sp.), and three awns (Aristida sp.).

MESQUITE-HUIS ACHE-BLACKBRUSH ASSOCIATION

The site taken as typical of this association is found near the Burford
well in the southeastern corner of the Miller ranch, located on the fan from
the Knox Canyon. There is a somewhat interfingering of porous and tighter
soils which are responsible for the variety of species. Where the mesquites
intermingle with the huisache there is more open stand of shrubs and
greater grass coverage. The cover of grasses is very thin in portions bear¬
ing a predominance of huisache. Species found in the association include:

56

The Texas Journal of Science

catclaw ( Acacia greggii Gray), huisache ( Acacia comtricta Benth.), black¬
brush (Microrhamnus ericoides Gray), mesquite (Prosopis juliflora (Swartz)
DC.), althorn (Koberlinia spinosa Zucc.), sumac (Rhus micro phylla
Englm.), creosote bush (Larrea tridentata (DC.) Cav.), narrow-leafed
yucca (Yucca elata Engelm.) . (Condalia lycioides (Gray) Web.), barberry
(Berheris trifoliolata Moric), (Ephedra tr if urea Torr.), ( Krameria parvi flora
Benth.), (Ihervillea tenuisecta (Gray) Small), (Opuntia ploaeacantha
Engelm.), (O leptocaulis DC.), (Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt),
(Senecio longilohus Benth.), (Talinum aurantiacum Engelm.). The grasses
(Hilar ia mutica (Buckl.) Benth.) and (Bouteloua hirsuta Lag.) varied in
the percentage of cover from about 5 to 89 per cent according to the type

and density of the shrub population.

*

YUCCA-BLACKBRUSH-GRAMA ASSOCIATION

The yucca-blackbrush-grama association occupies a limited area of
the ranch. A heavier stand of yucca (Yucca elata Engelm.) with numerous
clumps of blackbrush (Microrhamnus ericoides Gray) among the predomi¬
nant grama grasses (Bouteloua sp.) characterize this association.

blackbrush-creosote bush association

The blackbrush-creosote bush association is typified by the vegetation
found on a hill along the road to Valentine, on the Roosevelt Ranch, ap¬
proximately seven miles from the town of Valentine. The soil is rather
porous, light colored gravels mixed with some boulders which are well
rounded and containing a low ratio of finer sediments. This hill apparently
was a submerged ridge in a fresh water lake during an earlier stage since
many of the boulders are crusted with calcareous accumulations appearing
to be worm tubes and algal in origin. The dominant creosote bush (Laarea
tridentata (DC.) Cav.) and blackbrush (Microrhamnus ericoides Gray) are
low and in open stands. Huisache (Acacia constricta Benth.) is next in
abundance of the species. Allthorn (Koberlinia spinosa Zucc.), (Ephedra
sp.), (Echinocereus sp.), (Krameria parvi flora Benth.), and ( Yucca Torreyi
Shafer) are other shrubs present. The only forb found during the dry season
was (lbervillea tenusisecta (Gray) Small) which was twining about the
allthorn bushes where it was protected from grazing by the various animals
of the area. Only a few scattering sprigs of grasses, protected by the
bushes, included three awns (Aristida sp.), grama (Bouteloua sp.), and
(Panicum sp.). All grasses made up hardly more than a three to four
percent cover.

ROUGHLAND LIFE BELT

The roughland life belt includes all the slopes of the Sierra Viejas above
5,000 feet which overlook the Valentine Plain. This designation is similar
to that given in the Davis Mountains by Blair (1940:15). Six associations
are recognized in this life belt. The lechuguilla-beargrass association occu¬
pies the major portion of the area, including the mesa top which has suf¬
fered least in the process of erosion, while the other five associations are
on the more eroded portions of the slopes.

STREAM BED ASSOCIATION

The stream bed association includes the canyon floors. Boulders, gravels,
and sands with very little soil afford only slight chance for vegetation to

Physical and Vegetational Basis for Animal Distribution 57

maintain roots. A 100 x 100 foot quadrat at the junction of Z.H. and
Box canyons contained the following species: walnut (Juglans rupestris
Engelm.) 24, catclaw (Acacia greggi A. Gray) 18, hackberry (Celtis reticu¬
lata Torr.) 9, ( Croton fruticulosus Engelm.), (Aloysia lycioides Cham),
(Sapindus drummondii Hook & Arn.) ) 1, sumac ( Rhus micro phylla

Engelm.), grape (Vitis arizonica Engelm.) 2. The forbs include ( Cassia
lindheimeriana Scheele), thistle ( Cirsium undulatum (Nutt.) Spreng.),
(Eriogonum tenellum Nutt.), (Rhynchosia texana Torr. & Gray), a Rivina
humilis L.), and (Alternanthera repens O. Kuntze). Bluestem (Andropogon
sp.), grama (Bouteloua sp .) and three-awns (Aristida sp.) together made
up approximately five to ten percent grass cover in the quadrat.

Outside of the quadrat the vegetation varied according to the amount
of available soil, moisture and exposure. Some of the species collected were:
huisache (Acacia constricta Benth.), large toothed maple (Acer grandiden-
tatum Nutt.), (Carex hystricina Muhl.), (Chenopodium incanus (Wats.)
Heller), (Eleocharis macrostachys Britt.), (Erythraea calycosa Buckl.), ash
(Fraxinus velutina Torr.), (Juncus dudleyi Weig.), (/. torreyi Cav.),
( Ly thrum linearif olium (Gray) Small), (Matelea reticidata (Engelm.)
Woodson), (Mimulus cordatus Greene), (Moms micr.ophylla Buckl.),
(Oenothera brachyptera var. wrightii (Gray) Levi.), (Phacelia integrifolia
var. robusta MacBr.), (Polanisia uniglandulosa (Cav.) DC.), (Polygonum
lapathafolium L.), cottonwood (Populus sp.), plum (Primus virens (Wooten
& Standi.) Shreve), (Psoralea tenuiflora Pursh), gray oak (Quercus grisea
Liebm.), willow (Salix interior var. angustissima Anders.), (S. lasiolepis
Benth.), (Siphonoglossa pilosella (Nees) Torr.), (Typha angustifolia L.),
(V ernonia marginata (Torr.) Raf.), (Clematis Pitcheri Torr & Gray) var.
filifera (Benth.) Robinson).

The larger size of canyon species is probably due to the sheltered posi¬
tion in respect to both the sun and wind as suggested by Bray (1901) as
well as to the greater amount of moisture coming from springs along the
canyon walls.

CATCLAW-GRAMA ASSOCIATION

The catclaw-grama association covers most of the gentle canyon walls
and slopes of the Sierra Viejas. The soil is largely derived from alluvial
deposits such as volcanic ash and conglomerates laid down while a barrier
existed across channels thereby producing lakes. This lake condition was
later destroyed and the deposits have been eroded to a greater or less de¬
gree. A 100 x 100 foot quadrat near the old army fort, which is located in
this association included the following: catclaw (Acacia greggii A. Gray)
43, mesquite (Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC.) 1, (Aloysia lycioides Cham.)
6, (A. wrightii (Gray) Heller), cedar (Juniperus monosperma (Engelm.)
Sarg.) 3, (Opuntia arborescens Engelm.), (O. Engelmannia Salm-Dyck)
15, (Yucca carnerosana (Trel.) McKelvey) 2, (Sapindus drummondii Hook
& Arn.) 1, (Condalia lycioides (Gray) Web.) 6, (Baccharis sp.). Among
the forbs were (Artemisia gnaphalodes Nutt.), (Talinum aurantiacum
Engelm.), (Krameria parviflora Benth.), (Zinnia grandiiflora Nutt.). Else¬
where on the slopes (Celtis Pallida Torr.), (C. reticidata Torr.), ( Quercus
emoryi Torr.), (Q. grisea Liebm.) are found. (Commelina dianthifolia
Delile), (Fallugia paradoxa (Don.) Endl.), (Gaura coccinea Pursh), (Larrea
tridentata (DC.) Coville), (Lygodesmia juncea (Pursh) D. Don.), (Rhyn¬
chosia texana Torr. & Gray) were also collected.

58

The Texas Journal of Science

GRAMA-BLUESTEM ASSOCIATION

The grama-bluestem association occupies the slopes of the canyons
which are south facing, in most instances. These slopes were covered with
rock shingle from the underlying country rock. A limited amount of soil
was found between the rocks. Most of the soil is washed away about as
rapidly as it is formed. Some slopes were composed of volcanic ash where
the canyon cut through old lacustrine deposits of this material. Of the
various associations this one affords the best grazing (Carter 1931), but
unfortunately the area is too limited to be of great value. Check quadrats
were staked out on a slope having a forty-five degree angle. The following
species were recognized: (Ungnadia speciosa Endl.), (Opuntia Engelmannia
Salm-Dyck), ( O. Arborescens Engelm.), (Yucca torreyi Shafer), ( Tecoma
stans (L) H.B.K.), (Agave lechuguilla Torr.), (Fouquieria splendens

Engelm.), (Echinocereus sp.), (Aloysia xvrightii (Gray) Heller), ( Acacia
greggii A. Gray), (Asclepias sp.), (Croton sp.), {Sid a neomexicana Gray),
(Commelina dianthifolia Delile), (Bouteloua hirsuta Lag.), {Andropogon sp.)
and three-awns (Aristida sp.). In places the grass cover amounts to about
80%, however there are areas of rock talus slides interspersed on which
there is practically no cover.

ROCK BLUFF ASSOCIATION

Steep rocky declivities have been designated the rock bluff association.
Relatively little vegetation exists on these bluffs, however the few species
present may be larger in size than is attained on some other areas. This is
probably due to the more moderate insolation on the north facing slopes
and to the greater amount of water available as seepage from the slopes
above. Columnar jointed igneous deposits weather away to leave almost
vertical walls which allow entry of the root systems. The Mexican buckeye
(Ungnadia speciosa Endl.) , cedar (Juniperus monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg.),
(Croton fruticulosus Engelm.), Arizona grape (Vitis arizonica Engelm.),
bedstraw (Galium wrightii Gray) , (Bouvardia ternifolia (Cav.) Schlecht)
are characteristic of the association.

HUIS ACHE -LECHUGUILLA ACCOCIATION

Fairly close stands of lechuguilla ( Agave lechuguilla Torr.) and huisache
(Acacia constrict a Benth.) interspersed with scattering blackbrush ( Micror -
hamnus ericoides Gray) clumps and various spherical cacti characterize the
huisache-lechuguilla association. The soil on which this association is found
was apparently derived from volcanic ash which later became infiltrated
with caliche. Grass cover is less than one per cent, hence the areas of this
association are of little value as range. The lechuguilla is the outstanding
succulent of the region and would probably overrun greater areas were it
not for the partial destruction of the species by pocket gophers ( Thomomys
bottae).

LECHUGHILLA-BEARGRASS ASSOCIATION

The major portion of the more gentle slopes of the range has been
assigned to the lechuguilla-beargrass association. The upper slopes get
greater amounts of precipitation, due to the fact that over fifty per cent
comes during the late summer and early fall plus a high degree of insolation
with low relative humidity the vegetation is of small size. The succulent

Physical and Vegetational Basis for Animal Distribution 59

lechuguilla ( Agave lechuguilla Torr.) and beargrass (Nolina texana Wats.)
predominate the scene. Dwarfed forms of acacia, sumac and various cylin¬
drical and spherical cacti are found. Forbs include ( Amaranthus retro flexus
L.), (Asclepias sp.), (Cirsium ochrocentrum Gray), ( Dichondra argentea
Willd), (Dyssodia thurberi (Gray) Wats.), (Gaura coccinea Pursh) ,
( Linum arista turn Engelm.), (Lygodesmia texana (Torr & Gray) Greene),
(Solanum rostratum Dunal), (Tragia nepetaefolia Cav.), and ( Zinnia grand-
iflora Nutt). Grasses include bluestem (Andropogon sp.) three awns (Aris-
tida sp.), grama ( Boutelona curtipendula (Michx.) Torr.), (B. sp.),
(Hilaria belangeri (Steud) Nash.), and panic grasses (Panicum sp.)

RIO GRANDE BASIN BIOTIC DISTRICT

The Rio Grande basin biotic district may be divided into two major di¬
visions. The first is the area subject to inundation when the river is in flood
stage and the second the upland not subject to floods. The river bottom
soil, referred to the Gila series by Carter (1931), is very fertile, and is used
for agricultural purposes from time to time. Three associations have been
recognized in this area: the salt cedar-mesquite along the river channel and
arroyos; the old field association on fallow fields and the cottonwood associa¬
tion, principally on the Mexican side of the stream, but also present in spots
on the American side. Species collected from the flood plain include:
( Ammocodon chenopoides (A. Gray) Small), (Amaranthus sp.), ( Aster
spinosus Benth.), (Baccharis glutinosa Pers.), (Boerhaavia intermedia Jones),
(Chamaesyce glyptosperma (Engelm.) Small), (Encelia frutescens Gray),
(Helianthus ciliaris DC.), (Heliotropium curassavicum L.), (Hof f manse ggia
densi flora Benth.), (Kallstroemia parvi flora Norton), (Lycium torreyi
Gray), (Pectis paposa Har. & Gray), (Populus wislizeni (Wats.) Sarg.),
(Portulacca retusa L.), (Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC.), ( Prosopis odorata
Torr. & Frem.), (Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene), (Salsola pestifer A. Nels.),
(Solanum elaegni 'folium S. Wats.), (Tamarix galica L.), (Tidestromia
languginosa (Nutt.) Standi.), (Trianthema portidacastrum L.), (Trichloris
mendocina (Phil.) Kuntze, and (Ximinisia encelioides Cav.)

The uplands consist of remnants of an old eroded lake bed. Precipitation
in this area is limited and insolation is very intense, producing a marked
desert vegetation. The gravelly hills comprise the ocotilla-creosote bush asso¬
ciation and the intervening valleys the catclaw-creosote bush association.
Species obtained from these associations include (Aloysia wrightii (Gray)
Heller), (Bahia dealbata Gray), (Boerhaavia intermedia Jones, (Bouteloua
trifid a Thunb.), (Calliandra eriophylla Benth.), (Coldenia Greggii A. Gray) ,
(Croton corymbulosus Engelm.), (lbervillea tenuisecta (A. Gray) Small),
(Japtropha spathulata (Oct.) Muell. Arg.), (Kallstroemia grandiflora
Torr.), (K. parvi flora Norton), (Kramer ia parvi flora Benth.), ( Krynitzkia
albida (H.B.K.) Jolmot), (Lycium puberulum Gray), (Menodora scabra
(Gray), and (Tetraclea angustifolia Wooton & Standi.).

SUMMARY

A field party with Dr. W. Frank Blair, Director, investigated the
vertebrate populations and related ecological aspects of the Sierra Vieja
Mountains during June and early July 1948. This range of mountains
parallels the Rio Grande in Presidio and Jeff Davis Counties for about 40
miles. Faulting of volcanic deposits of late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary

60

The Texas Journal of Science

age during Mid-Tertiary brought the range into being. To the west lies the
Rio Grande plain composed of eroded lacustrine deposits. To the east is
the Valentine plain occupying an inland drainage basin. Precipitation at
the foot of the range averages about 14.5 inches annually. Higher on the
slopes rainfall is no doubt somewhat greater. Low relative humidity with
high insolation account for the sparseness and small size of the vegetation
of the plains and exposed slopes. Within the canyons and on sheltered, north

Physical and Vegetation al Basis for Animal Distribution 61

facing slopes humidity and insolation are suitable to the vegetation of
greater size. Rainfall at the Miller ranch is greater than at Presidio, which
is to the south and is less than at Alpine or Balmorrhea which are to the
northeast. Over fifty percent of the precipitation occurs during late sum¬
mer. The frost free period is about 22 5 days on the average.

Within the Sierra Vieja region of the Chihuahuan biotic province two
biotic districts are recognized, namely the Sierra Vieja and the Rio Grande
Basin. The former is divided into the Plains life felt and the Roughland
life belt, while the Rio Grande Basin is divided into the Flood-plain and
Upland life belts. Seven associations are recognized in the Plains life belt
and six in the Roughland life belt. Three associations are recognized within
the Rio Grande Flood-plain and two on the hills of the Upland belt.

Editor’s note:

Through an error in composition the two maps accompanying this paper
were included in Jameson, D. L. and A. G. Fleury — 1949 — Reptiles and
amphibians of the Sierra Vieja. Tex. J. Sci. v(2) : 54-79. Our editorial apolo¬
gies are made for the mistake. The maps were Mr. York’s and should be so
credited.

LITERATURE CITED

Atwood, Wallace W. — 1940 — The physiographic provinces of North America. Ginn and Co.

New. York, N. Y. i-xvi, 1-536, 281 figs., 1 map.

Baker, Charles Laurence — 1927 — Exploratory geology of a part of southwestern Trans-Pecos
Texas. Bull. Univ. Tex. 2745: 1-70, 1 pi.

Blair, W. Frank — 1940 — A contribution to the ecology and faunal relationships of the mam¬
mals of the Davis Mountains region, southwestern Texas. Misc. Publ., Mus. Zool. Univ.
Mich. 46 : 1-38, 3 pis., 6 figs., 1 map.

Bray, William L. — 1901 — The ecological relations of the vegetation of western Texas. Bot.
Gaz. 32: 195-217, 262-291, Figs. 7-24.

62

The Texas Journal of Science

Carter, W. T.— 1931— The soils of Texas. Bull. Tex. Agri. Exp. Sta. A. & M. Coll. 431: 1-192-,
86 text fig., map.

Carter, W. T. and V. L. Cory — 1932 — Soils of Trans-Pecos Texas and some of their vegeta¬
tive relations. Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 15: 19-32.

Clements, Frederic E. — 1920 — Plant indicators. Carnegie Inst. Wash. 290 : i-xvi, 1-388, 25 text
figs.

Cottle, H. J. — 1932 — Vegetation on north and south slopes of mountains in southwestern
Texas. Ecology 13: 121-34, Figs. 1-8.

- 1931 — Studies in the vegetation of southwestern Texas. Ecology 12: 105-55,

Figs. 1-47.

Dice, Lee R. — 1939 — The Sonoran biotic province. Ecology 20 : 118-29, Fig. 1.

- 1943 — The biotic provinces of North America. University of Michigan Press,

Ann Arbor, Mich, i-viii, 1-78, map.

Fennemann, Nevin M. — 1931 Physiography of western United States. New York: McGraw-
Hill. i-x, 1-534, 1 pi., 173 text figs.

Havard. Dr. Valery — 1885 — Report on the flora of western and southern Texas. Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus. 8: 449-533.

Hinckley, L. C. — 1947- — Contrasts in the vegetation of Sierra Tierra Vieja in Trans-Pecos
Texas. Amer. Mid. Nat. 37 : 162-178, 9 figs.

Kincer, J. B. — 1922 — Precipitation and humidity. Atlas of Amer. Agric. Gov. Printing
Office, Washington, D. C. 48 pp., 107 text figs.

Shantz, H. L. and Raphael Zon — 1924 — Atlas of American Agriculture. Pt. 1, Sec. 2, (Nat¬
ural Vegetation) : 1-29, 60 figs.

Shreve, Forest — 1936 — The plant life of the Sonoran Desert. Sci. Monthly 42: 195-213, 6 text
figs., map.

Tharp, B. C. — 1928 — The vegetation of Texas. Tex. Acad. Publ. Nat. History, nontechnical
series. The Tex. Acad. Sci. 74 pp., 19 pis.

U S. Geological Survey — 1892 — Topographic map, Chispa Quadrangle, 1938 reprint.

- -1894 — Topographic map, Valentine quadrangle, 1929 reprint.

- - 1395 — Topographic map, San Carlos quadrangle, 1929 reprint.

U. S. Weather Bureau — 1931 — Climatic summary of the United States, and anuual supple¬
ments to date.

SHELLED MOLLUSKS OF THE TEXAS COAST
FROM GALVESTON TO PORT ARANSAS

T. E. Pulley

Department of Biology, University of Houston
Houston, Texas

The need for a comprehensive study of the fauna of the Texas coast has
long been felt, and a simple check list of the species likely to be encountered
would be a valuable addition to the literature. Most of the studies that have
been made apply principally to the Atlantic coast with only vague refer¬
ences to species extending westward into the Gulf of Mexico.

In the following table of Mollusks in the collection at the University
of Houston, less than half of the species are actually listed in the current,
and readily available, literature as occurring in Texas. In many cases the
published range may be interpreted as including Texas, but in others, such
as Modioli its demissus, Texas apparently represents a range extension of at
least several hundred miles.

In addition to the 75 classified species in the collection, there are 10
species which have not been identified. Each collecting trip produces new
species for the collection, so the list is far from complete. The identification
of some species is tentative, but all are being checked by Dr. William J.
Clench of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University.

The implication of this study is that much basic information is lack¬
ing with respect to the marine biology of the Texas coast. A suggestion for
the improvement of this situation would be a correlated effort on the part
of all the schools or other institutions in the area to publish brief descriptive
lists of each of the major faunal groups. Such lists need not be complete or
extensive at the present time, but the mere fact of their publication would
undoubtedly stimulate further investigations.

COMMON NAME OCCURRENCE PUBLISHED RANGE

Shelled Mollusks of the Texas Coast

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Lamarck

Fasciolaria tulipa Tulip shell Scarce. Galveston, Aransas No. Car. to W. Indies

Linne Bay, Matagorda Island

Janihina globosa Globe violet snail Scarce. Matagorda Island Fla. and most warm

Swainson seas- Gu,f stream

NAME COMMON NAME OCCURRENCE PUBLISHED RANGE

64

The Texas Journal of Science

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Anatina canaliculata Channeled duck Common throughout Maryland to Brazil

name common name occurrence published range

Shelled Mollusks of the Texas Coast

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Cloione cancellata Cross barred venus Rare. Galveston. Common No. Car. to Brazil

jjnne Matagorda & Mustang Islands

Chione latilirata Broad ribbed venus Occasional Galveston, Southern Fla. and

Conrad Matagorda & Mustang Islands W. Indies

66

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68

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Early Plant Collections Return to Texas

69

EARLY PLANT COLLECTIONS RETURN TO TEXAS

Lloyd H. Shinners
Herbarium

Southern Methodist University, Dallas

A herbarium is the means by which the plant life of a large area is
sampled and made conveniently accessible for study. Texas, with the largest
area and one of the most varied floras of the United States, is botanically
one of the most poorly known. Although its botanical exploration has been
going on for more than a hundred and twenty-five years (it began in the
summer of 1820, when Edwin James, surgeon of Major Long’s expedition
to the Rocky Mountains, collected a few plants along the Canadian River
in the Texas Panhandle), the early collections were sent elsewhere, and are
not readily available for study by resident botanists. Pioneer collectors
were either sent from Europe, or were patronized by botanists in the older
parts of the United States. Not until the late 1890’s did a Texas institution
begin serious study of the flora of the state. Just fifty years ago, W. L. Bray
made collections more or less incidentally to ecological studies of the vege¬
tation. These were the earliest collections to remain permanently in Texas,
and were the beginning of what is now the largest herbarium in the state,
that of the University of Texas. An important addition was one of the sets
distributed from the Missouri Botanical Garden in 1907, including 6 52
specimens collected in south-central Texas by Ferdinand Lindheimer from
1849 to 18 52. Collections made by S. M. Tracy in Texas and other Gulf
states in the early 1900’s became the nucleus of the Tracy Herbarium of
the A. & M. College of Texas.

The very old collections made in Texas were often fragmentary or
lack full or reliable data, or have had labels lost or mixed up (sometimes
deliberately) in handling. It must be admitted that at present many are of
little more than sentimental historical value. Recent intensive activity di¬
rected toward the building up of herbaria in the state has resulted in the
accumulation of material for taxonomic, geographic, and morphological
study far superior to what was once available. But the original collections
of new species, the "type collections,” are necessary for comparison if names
are to be correctly applied. Old collections record the presence of species in
areas from which they have now disappeared, or may indicate the former
geographic limits of native plants which have turned weedy and spread, or
record the first appearance of foreign weeds. For certain purposes, old col¬
lections have a value out of all proportion to their number or quality.

During the past few years, Southern Methodist University has been
fortunate enough to secure a number of early Texas plant collections, dat¬
ing as far back as 1839. The University Herbarium, though the youngest
and at present the third largest in the state (it dates from 1944, and now
contains 30,000 specimens of flowering plants), thus becomes the one with
the oldest specimens. These are from two sources. In 1945, a lot of 633
specimens in the Herbarium of the Milwaukee Public Museum was gener¬
ously made available in exchange by Albert M. Fuller, Curator of Botany.
These were chiefly from the herbarium of Emil Dapprich, a German teacher
who visited Texas in 1873, obtained specimens of Lindheimer and Charles

70

The Texas Journal of Science

Wright, later lived in Milwaukee, and ultimately left his collections to the
Public Museum there. In 1948, in excess of 1,000 specimens were received
by special arrangement with Dr. Robert E. Woodson, Jr., Curator of the
Herbarium of the Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis. These include both
mounted and unmounted duplicates of collections made by several botanists
in Texas and other northern states during the last century. Chiefly respon¬
sible for their acquisition by the Missouri Botanical Garden were George
Engelmann, whose private collections (including a large number of Lind-
heimer’s from Texas) became an important initial part of the Garden’s
Herbarium, and William Trelcase, the Garden’s first director, who sought
to make his institution the leading center of botanical study for the South¬
west. In the late 1890’s and early 1900’s, the Garden purchased nearly all
the available Texas collections (the largest being that of Julien Reverchon,
first resident botanist of Dallas, very few of whose specimens have been
distributed), and subsidized collectors to carry on additional exploration.
As a result, there are now probably more Texas specimens to be found at
the Missouri Botanical Garden than at any one institution in Texas.

The early plant collections which have been mounted and are now
available for use in the Herbarium of Southern Methodist University are
tabulated below. Altogether, slightly less than 1,400 early Texas specimens
are now on hand; others are still to be received. The plant families most
amply represented are the Gramineae, Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae, and
Asclepiadaceae. There are a number of isotypes in the collections of Lind-
heimer, Wright, Reverchon, and Heller, of species described by Engelmann,
Gray, Bush, and Heller.

Collector

No. of
Sheets

Dates

Counties

Ferdinand Lindheimer

ca. 3 30

1839-1852

Austin, Comal, Galveston,

Charles Wright

97

1850-1852

Harris

El Paso (chiefly), Hays or

Emil Dapprich

ca. 200

1 8 7 3 - ?

Travis

Comal, Dallas, Mason

J. F. Joor

23

1875-1884

Anderson, Cherokee, Gal¬

F. Rauterberg

ca. 25

1888

veston, Harris, Lampasas,
Travis, Washington

Comal

Julien Reverchon

315

1876-1905

Brazos, Brown, Burnet, Cul¬

Gustav Jermy

2

1 899-?

berson, Dallas, Frio, Kauf¬
man, Llano, Navarro, Old¬
ham, Palo Pinto, Potter,
Smith, Van Zandt, Wood,
Young

Gillespie

G. C. Nealley

1

1893

Duval

A. A. Heller

177

1894

Kerr, Nueces, San Patricio

S. M. Tracy

49

1902

Galveston, Howard, Mitch¬

C. T. Brues

ca. 25

1911

ell, Parker

Grayson, Travis

Acclimitization of a Marine Ciliate

71

ACCLIMATIZATION OF A MARINE FREE-LIVING CILIATE
(OXYTRICHIDAE) TO LOWER OSMOTC PRESSURE * **

Robert Anigstein * *

Ball Fligh School, Galveston, Texas f

Protozoa have fascinated me ever since I first studied them in my
high school biology course. To think, a watch glass can contain hundreds of
active, living organisms, each of which can perform all the functions of
life of higher animals, though it consists of but a single cell! Even more
wonderful is the fact that from a form similar to present day protozoa, all
life on earth originated.

Living on an island in the Gulf of Mexico presented an excellent oppor¬
tunity for studying the protozoan marine fauna. Furthermore, having been
granted the privilege of using the laboratory facilities of the University of
Texas Medical Branch, I also had the benefit of consultation with some
members of its staff.

After studying Richard R. Kudo’s "Protozoology” and having acquired
general knowledge of microscopic animals, I began looking for a problem
worthy of investigation. Since the salt concentration of a partially enclosed
body of seawater, such as Galveston Bay, would vary in different seasons,
it was of interest to explore to what extent seawater protozoa can be
acclimatized to lower salt concentrations under laboratory conditions. No
study of this type could be found in the available literature, though Loefer
(1938) studied the acclimatization of freshwater protozoa to higher osmotic
pressure.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Water samples taken from promising locations along the northeast
shore of Galveston Island gave origin to five wild cultures of protozoa. The
entire cultures were studied under wide-field microscope for several weeks
and samples examined under high power. Most of the cultures abounded in
various species of protozoa. Distilled water was then added to one of the
cultures with the result that 2 weeks later most of its protozoa were
killed. However, a large, elongated yellowish ciliate, about 200 to 250
microns long, was among the survivors and found in large numbers on the
bottom of the dish. Since this form, which was later identified as belong¬
ing to the family Oxytrichidae , seemed more resistant to sudden changes in
osmotic pressure, it was decided to use it as object of the present study
(Fig. 1).

In order to duplicate natural conditions as closely as possible, seawater
from the locality of the original cultures was used as the medium through¬
out the experiments. This was analyzed by evaporating a measured

* Presented before the State meeting of the Junior Academy of Science, December, 1948.

** Winner of A. A. A. S. Honorary Junior Membership, 1949.

Winner of a Westinghouse Science Scholarship in the nationwide Science Talent Search,

1949.

Winner of the Bausch and Lomb Honorary Science Award, 1949.

Winner of a 1949 University National Scholarship,
f Present address: Cornell University, College of Arts & Sciences, Ithaca, New York

72

The Texas Journal of Science

Fig. 1. Magnification appr. 300 X

quantity to complete dryness in an oven and weighing the residual substance.
It was found to contain 39 grams of dissolved minerals per liter.

A culture of the ciliates which contained very few other protozoa
was established by transferring about twenty specimens to a Petri dish con¬
taining stock seawater and a sufficient amount of algae to support the
organisms. The latter were transferred by a capillary blunted pipette — a
most convenient instrument for handling the ciliates.

Prior to acclimatization experiments, it seemed desirable to learn the
rate at which this ciliate reproduces under normal conditions. The proce¬
dure consisted in transferring a drop of water containing one ciliate and a
small amount of algae from the stock culture into the hollow of a ground
depression slide, which was then sealed with a coverslip. This preparation
was examined daily under the microscope, and as soon as a completed di¬
vision was observed, one of the offspring was transferred to another, similar
slide.

The procedure for the acclimatization experiments was as follows:
( 1 ) samples of the stock seawater were diluted with distilled water to the
desired concentration; (2) the required number of clean, dry watch glasses
were weighed; (3) ten ciliates were transferred from the stock culture to
each of the watch glasses; (4) diluted seawater (0.5 ml.) was then added

Acclimitization of a Marine Ciliate

73

plus one drop of specially prepared algae infusion (100 mg. pulverized algae
in 5 mi. stock seawater) to provide a uniform and adequate food supply.
The watch glasses were weighed again, and the weight of the added media
was determined. Since the salt concentration of the medium is raised by sea¬
water carried over from the stock culture of ciliates as well as by that in
the algal infusion, the following formula was derived to determine the
amount of distilled water to be added in order to bring the culture back
to the desired salt concentration:

A-.5 [1 + c (g- 1)] . 1 -c

8 c
A total weight of liquid in watch glass
c desired concentration of medium

g specific gravity of the stock seawater, gravimetrically
determined and equal to 1.0244.

After this procedure was completed, the cultures were sealed with
greased coverslips, placed in semi-darkness, and counted periodically.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

In the reproductive rate experiments, a total of 3 0 generations exhibited
an average rate of one division every 24 hours in fresh medium, and once
every 32 hours in a medium one month old. Two series of acclimatization
experiments were performed. In the first, 5 cultures were prepared in sea¬
water concentrations of 30, 50, 64, 80 and 100 percent respectively, the
last being the control. The latter was thought necessary since some of the
ciliates die from handling with a pipette. Cultures were observed for 4
days, at the end of which period 10 ciliates were transferred from each of
dilute seawater cultures to preparations with the original 100% seawater.
These new cultures were under observation for 7 days (Fig. 2).

The second series involved 7 cultures, in 10, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100
percent seawater respectively. They were under observation for 4 days,
whereupon several ciliates from each culture were transferred to pure
distilled water; all the ciliates died shortly.

The accompanying table I and graph (Fig. 2) show the reproductive
rates of the ciliates in different seawater concentrations. With the exception
of one culture, ciliates in concentration above 50% seawater multiply at
much the same rate as the ones in the parallel control cultures. The ciliates
transferred to 50% seawater reproduce very rapidly for the first day or two
after transfer; then the rate drops. At 30% the rate was high for the first
2 days, after which reproduction temporarily ceased. Ciliates surviving the
transfer to 40% seawater began to multiply after the third day, at nearly
the rate of the controls. A very slow reproduction was noticed in 10%
preparations, while no multiplication was noticed in the 20% seawater. In
the latter medium a marked inhibition of motility was noted the day fol¬
lowing the transfer, the ciliates becoming almost motionless by the third
day. Simultaneously they become shorter, almost round and lighter in
color; their body being spread out in the manner of an amoeba. A reexami¬
nation of the culture on the 12th day revealed all ciliates dead, although
other cultures were alive. The ciliates in the 10% culture suffered a slight
inhibition in motility and some deformation. On the 12th day several
specimens were transferred back to 100% seawater with the result that all

74

The Texas Journal of Science

died immediately, whereas ciliates from 40 and 50 percent seawater sur¬
vived the transfer.

CONCLUSIONS

( 1 ) The species of Oxytrichidae under study will tolerate a wide range
of osmotic pressures. Although some ciliates will survive a direct transfer
to a medium one tenth of the original salt concentration, a high mortality
rate, inhibition of motility and decrease in reproductive rate as well as
deformation were observed at concentrations below 30%.

(2) The organisms will survive transfer from seawater concentrations
of 30 to 80 percent back to the original medium after being 4 days in the
former. On the other hand, ciliates transferred from 10% seawater will
not survive the change.

(3) The critical concentration to which the cilates are transferable
is approximately 30% seawater. Their reproduction is hampered 2 days
after transfer to this concentration, although movement is not affected and
the ciliates will survive the return to the original medium.

(4) The reproduction rate of the ciliates transferred to 50% or less
seawater is stimulated temporarily, but the rate decreases after 2 days. Rates
are not greatly affected by transfer to seawater concentrations above 50%.

( 5 ) Though a varying mortality rate will occur when the ciliates are
first returned from dilute media to the original 100% seawater, reproduc¬
tion soon returns to normal.

(6) The species under study could not be sufficiently acclimatized
to lowered salt concentrations to survive a direct transfer to distilled water.

(7) The reproductive rate of one isolated ciliate is higher than that
of a mass culture.

(8) Old medium inhibits reproduction. This finding is contrary to
observations of Dimitrova and Johnson and Hardin (Hall, 1941).

Since the scope of this study was limited and only a small number of

RATIO OF REPRODUCTION OF CIL1ATES TRANSFERRED TO DILUTE SEAWATER

Acclimitization of a Marine Cillate

75

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The Texas Journal of Science

experiments were performed, the conclusions are tentative only. Further
investigation of this problem should prove an interesting contribution to
experimental protozoology, particularly to the responses of a living cell to
its environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my gratitude to the staff of the University of Texas
Medical School, especially to the members of the Department of Preventive
Medicine for the invaluable advice and assistance given me in carrying out
this project.

LITERATURE CITED

Loefer, J. B. — 1939 — Acclimatization of freshwater ciliates and flagellates to media of higher
osmotic pressure. Physiol. Zoology 12: 161.

Hall, R. P. — 1941 — Food requirements and other factors influencing protozoa in pure cul¬
tures, in : “Protozoa in Biological Research.” Columbia University Press. P. 475.

Kudo, R. R. — 1939 — Protozoology. Charles C. Thomas.

MICRO-ORGANISMS IN BEERMETERS
J. N. Stern

University of Nuevo Leon
Monterrey, Mexico

Beermeters belong in many countries to the standard equipment of a
brewery.

The apparatus is of much utility to the national treasury in simplify¬
ing the tax problems, and it is an important tool of the brewmaster, which
helps control the efficiency of the factory and permits an exact calculation
of the ratio between the raw materials and the end product.

On the other hand, the chief drawback of the beermeter lies in the
danger of contamination and bacterial infection which can easily interfere
with the standard quality of beer if the meter is not kept in a state of
immaculate cleanliness.

The word contamination in relation to an industrial fermentation like
the production of beer has two meanings. The first one is the presence of
any organism which does not belong in the normal process without any
consideration as to whether or not it can spoil the product, and the second
is contamination with definite bacteria and fungi able to produce altera¬
tions in the wort or beer, causing the so-called "beer diseases.” It is easy to
understand, then, that in practice attention is directed primarily to the
second form of infection, the only one which is important to the brew-
master.

As a rule the biological control in breweries is limited to organisms
which can live and thrive during the process of brewing or in the end
product.

The present paper deals with a few examinations of the microflora in
beermeters. The determination of bacteria was limited to twelve genera,
using Shimwell’s method. However, all of the fungi were reported.

The beermeters were made by Bowser, and had been in use, without
opening, for as much as six months, mounted in a room with a tempera¬
ture of 0°C (32°F), and washed by reflux several times in a week.

Micro-organisms in Beermeters

77

The microflora was isolated from a residue which could be found by
opening the apparatus in three or four places, where probably the liquid, if
not stagnant, flows slowly. The identifications were made by routine media,
like Lindner’s cell, isolation in Petri dishes, spore formation of yeasts on
gypsum blocks, different stainings, etc.

The results obtained were as follows:

BEER METER NO. 1 contained spores of Bacillus subtilis , but they
were very scarce, as were Lactobacillus sp., Aerobacter sp., Flavobacterium
proteus, Torula (a wild yeast not belonging to the genus Saccharomyces)
Aspergillus sp., and Sacbsia sp. Present in fair numbers fere Acetobacter sp.,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces sp. (a wild yeast of the exiguus
type), and a fungus Pullularia pullulans. A wild yeast My coderma sp. (not
belonging to the genus Saccharomyces ) was present in fair numbers.

BEER METER NO. 2 contained Micrococcus sp., but it was very
scarce, as were Lactobacillus sp., Aerobacter sp., Flavobacterium sp., the
spores of Clostridium sp., and fungi of the genera Oidium sp., Rhizopus sp.,
Aspergillus sp., and Sachsia sp. Present in fair number were Acetobacter sp.,
M ycoderma sp. and the fungus Pullularia pullulans. Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and another member of the same genus (a wild yeast of the exiguus type)
were abundant.

BEER METE.R NO. 3 contained Micrococcus sp., Aerobacter sp., spores
of Clostridium sp., Lactobacillus sp., Flavobacterium sp., and the fungi
Oidium sp., Rhizopus sp., Sachsia and Alternaria, all very scarce. Acetobacter
sp. and Mycoderma (a wild yeast not belonging to the genus Saccharomyces )
occurred in fair numbers, while Saccharomyces cerevisiae , and another mem¬
ber of the same genus (a wild yeast of the exiguus type) and the fungus
Pullullaria pullulans, were abundant.

None of the following were found: Pro pionibacterium sp., Sarcina sp.,
Streptococcus sp., Escherichia sp., Achromobacter sp.

These experiments make evident the fact that beermeters present a
potential danger of infection if the apparatus is not kept in a state of
absolute cleanliness, which cannot be obtained by reflux washing. The
meters must be opened frequently in order to keep them clean, and only the
responsible brewmaster is able to fix in each case the time between the in¬
tervals.

If the beer is not pasteurized this cleanliness must be enforced.

Summary:

( 1 ) In the beermeters can be found a residue composed mostly of liv¬
ing cells.

(2) The formation of the residue is due probably to a stagnation of
the fluid in certain points of the apparatus.

(3) Most of the organisms belong to Sacch. cerevisiae , but still there
are others which present a potential danger of the infection for the end
product.

(4) To avoid danger, the meter must be kept in a state of immaculate
cleanliness, which can be obtained only by opening the apparatus at frequent
intervals. If the beer is not pasteurized such cleanliness must be enforced.

78

The Texas Journal of Science

LITERATURE CITED

Henneberg-, W. — 1926 — Handbuch der Gaerungsbakteriologie. 2 Bde. XV : 602 ; IV : 403 pp-
Paul Parey. Berlin.

Jorgensen, A. — -1939 — Micro-organisms and fermentation. Sixth Ed. XI: 416 pp., 40 pi.
J. B. Lippincott Co.

Schnegg, H.— 1928 — Die Biologische Betriebskontrolle des Brauereibetriebs. VIII : 436 pp.
Ferdinand Encke. Stuttgart.

Shimwell, J. L. — 1947 — Sarcina. American Brewer, January, 1947 : 27-29, 57.

— - - 1947a — -The identification of brewery bacteria. Brewer’s Digest. January

1947. 6-8 technical.

APPLICATION OF SOME BIOGENETIC LAWS TO STRATIGRAPHY

A. A. L. Mathews
Department of Geology
University of Houston

The paper presents the biogenetie laws without analysis. Emphasis is placed on the
laws applicable to the fossils which serve as a guide for stratigraphic units, without listing
the innumerable forms. Fragmental parts of senescent fossils can be ued satifactorily for
stratigraphic determinations.

The application of biogenetie laws to stratigraphy is based upon a
common interpretation that skeletal characters reflect the living viscus of
the organism. Since our only available data for the analysis of pre-existing
life are the exhumed skeletons of that life, the application of biogenetie
laws is based on the careful and detailed study of fossils. Close study of
fossils reveals the laws to be as applicable to the living-past as they are to
the living-present.

Granted that fossils establish the type and character of the living or¬
ganisms, the problem of this thesis is to outline certain characteristics in
reference to stratigraphic sequence, and apply only specific biogenetie laws
to those organisms involved. To perform this task properly, it is necessary
to trace one character at a time through a great series of generations and
note the changes in the character from time to time. By tracing the devel¬
opment of the straight conch of the Cephalopoda, this principle can be
illustrated. Straight shells with simple sutures are taken as primitive char¬
acters of the Nautiloidea (Ordovician). The last of the primitive straight
forms occur in the Triassic. A straight conch Cephalopoda occurs in the
Upper Cretaceous, but is a member of the Ammonoidea with complex
sutures. In comparing these two groups, the ontogenetic pattern appears
somewhat reversed; i.e., as far as shape of shell is concerned, the Ordovician
Michelinoceras (formerly Of hoc eras ) looks like the Upper Cretaceous
j faculties. But, in the ontogeny of the former the straight conch persists
throughout life, while the conch in Baculites in the early stages is coiled and
straightens after the fifth volution in the adult stage of growth, with
complex sutures superimposed on it. The biogenetie laws involved are Nos.
20 and 21; "When a race has run its course, the senile species of the group
tend to re-establish themselves by reverting to a primitive characteristic of
the group,” "When such reversions take place, the more recently acquired
characters will be superimposed on the primitive character to which the
group reverts.” This sudden appearance of the straight conch in Baculites
might be considered by some as mutation. It is more properly considered
reversion, since the 22nd law states; "There is no positive record of saltation
(mutation) in paleontological data.” The straight conch Cephalopoda with

Application of Biogenetic Laws to Stratigraphy

79

simple sutures is restricted almost entirely to Paleozoic sediments; the
straight conch Cephalopoda, with complex sutures, is restricted more
narrowly to the Upper Cretaceous.

All biogenetic laws should have stratigraphic significance. To make a
practical application of this theme, one must be a detailed student of a
phyletic group, and further, must appreciate the value of detailed stratig¬
raphy. The late Doctors Stuart Weller and James Perrine Smith more nearly
typify this specialized type of student in their studies of the Brachiopoda
and the Cephalopoda, respectively. Each man believed implicitly in the 9th
biogenetic law; "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.” Dr. Weller could
observe a fragment of some brachiopods and not only tell the species, but
also the section in the formation whence it was obtained. Dr. Smith’s
observations and analyses were even keener. Today we realize that there is
no limit to the application of the law of recapitulation. It is universal and
almost axiomatic.

Any student of paleontology is startled when he realizes that in the
composition of early Cambrian faunas, the remains of the highest devel¬
oped invertebrates outnumber all other forms two to one. This is true not
only in number, but also in the number of species. Why? To answer this
involves a thorough understanding of animal life and the application of
biogenetic laws to it. Law No. 4 states; "As life forms progress, differen¬
tiation of body parts become necessary.” This is true of the Trilobita, which
represented the Arthropoda in Cambrian time. The trilobites were the most
muscular organisms of that time. Muscles require points of attachments.
When the mineral composition of the sea reached the proper constituency,
the trilobites were covered with an exoskeleton of chiton, forming body
segments and jointed appendages.

Analytical study of early Cambrian trilobites proves that the phylum
was highly developed and greatly deployed at the beginning. An interpreta¬
tion states that the life span of the phylum had become senescent, i.e., had
reached phyletic senility. This is illustrated by Olenellus gilberti, and others.
In other words, the members of the group as a whole, living in the Cambrian
seas, were on the downward slope of the bell-shaped curve. See law No. 10.

As a result of this condition, trilobites are highly desirable for use as
guide fossils for detailed stratigraphic differentiation in the study of early
Paleozoic formations. To illustrate, Ncvadia weeksi is limited to the lowest
Cambrian formations. It was an end-form, and did not give rise to another
group of trilobites like those of Mesinacus, of a later date. Law No. 16
states; "Phylagerontic (phyletic senescent) groups can not give rise to new
groups.” From this discussion, one must conclude that later trilobites were
derived from a primitive stock which may not have been preserved as a
fossil, or if preserved, have not been discovered or recognized.

Law No. 15 states: "Extreme variation within a group is evidence of
group senility.” This is verified by the fact, that, almost from the begin¬
ning in the Lower Cambrian, there were great numbers of aberrant trilo¬
bites which are known either by loss of body parts, like Agnosus; by extreme
ornamentation, like 2 acanthoides, and Certocephala; and, in formations of
later ages, like those extremely bizarre senescent genera, Trochurus, Echino-
licas, Terataspis and Ond ontoce phalus , all in the Onondaga of Devonian age,
or, by extreme plainness and large size, like Jllaenus and Bumastus of the

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The Texas Journal of Science

Chazy Group in the Ordovician. In both cases all of the genera had a short
life and have been found in rock beds of very narrow stratigraphic range.

Law No. 18 states; "When a group actually loses a character it does
not reappear in a later group.” For instance, the eye base of early Cambrian
trilobites is an elevated, elongated, lunar-shaped protruberance on the cheek,
such as are found in Olenellus, and others. Whereas, the eye base of the
Middle Cambrian and later trilobites is much reduced in length and in¬
creased in convexity, such as are found in Paradoxides , Olenins, Isotelus ,
Phacops and others. This limitation in the development of a single part of
a fossil makes it possible for the student to determine the age of the rocks
by a single fragment of trilobite, if the eye base is included. The same
analysis holds for the genal spines, glabell, free cheek, etc.

The application of these laws is illustrated by the more senile fossil
groups, such as the Pelmatozoa, Brachiopoda, Cephalopoda, Ostracoda and
insecta. Some progressive invertebrate groups such as the Gastropoda and
Pelecypoda, are good only for long range deductions.

The early brachiopods found in Cambrian rocks are considered simple
progressive forms. As far as the shells are concerned, this is true, but the
animals inhabiting the shells were senile. The innumerable species of brachi-
pods which developed during Paleozoic time were the result of bi-lateral
branching of the more primitive. Traces of the primitive stock can be
found in Upper Cambrian and later rocks, and one stock, at least, comprises
the dominant brachipod species living today. This is due to the (?) 5th bio-
genetic law; "Primitive characteristics are the most persistent in phyletic
groups.” This means that the primitive forms are durable. This law is
illustrated by Lingula and its allies; also, Natica which served as a radical
stock for all coiled Gastropoda, even Fusus and its allies.

Contrast, for instance Lingulacea with the Productidae. The Produc-
tidae appeared suddenly in late Devonion rocks as a senile group, reached
their maximum deployment quickly in the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian
and became extinct in the Permian. The spines of the early productids were
solid, but the spines of the latter were hollow. Thus, during the short span
of geologic history, the Productidae became species of great specialization
and short life. Thus, these fossils are most useful for stratigraphic differen¬
tiation. This illustrates law No. 1 5 ; "Extreme variation within a group is
evidence of group senility.” Schuchert states that the Productidae were de¬
rived out of Kutorginidae through Suchertinidae and Billingsellidae, but it
gave rise to no new groups, illustrating again the 16th law; "Phylagerontic
(phyletic senile) groups can not give rise to new groups.”

The application of this thesis to stratigraphy is as follows: the specific
characters are so exact that a student can tell a species and stratigraphic
range by a single fragment of the fossil, like a spine base of a productid,
such as the spine base of Productus coxa, a species limited to the lower part
of middle Pennsylvanian. One of the hollow spines of the old Productus
subhorrida will determine the Rex Chert of the Permian.

This paper merely suggests the application of the thesis to the practi¬
cal use of any of the phyletic groups when properly analyzed and applied
to stratigraphy. This point of view is important, since the great mass of
field data which must be used for determining the age of strata contain
only fragments of the included fossils. Therefore, this approach to the

Measuring Instruments and Their Use

81

study for biostratigraphy should be included for a clear and exact training
for field work.

The biogenetic laws are presented for ready reference. There is prob¬
ably no limitation to the amount of illustrative data that can be presented.

SOME BIOGENETIC LAWS

1. All living substances originate from some pre-existing living substance, except the
probable original primitive protoplasmic mass which is supposed to have been formed
from inorganic compounds.

2. There is a gradual change from one individual to another individual, i.e., from parent
to offspring, (a) Under constant conditions, the change is most gradual in primitive
groups and most rapid in senile groups, (b) Under adverse conditions, the change is
still most gradual in primitive groups, yet more rapid than under constant conditions,
and, the senile groups tend to die out.

3. All life is built up from individual cells, in unicellular as well as in multicellular or¬
ganisms. In the Metazoa, cells are differentiated and arranged into tissues to form dif¬
ferential structures.

4. As life-forms progress differentiation of body parts become necessary.

5. Primitive characteristics are the most persistent in a phyletic group.

6. Only selective basic and necessary characteristics are carried over from one phyletic
group to another phyletic group in the orderly development and progression of life-
forms.

7. Induced characters are advanced in the ontogeny of all subsequent generations, thus,
accelerated. These are highly accelerated in derived genetic groups.

8. An acclereated character may become completely submerged or lost in the ontogeny of
the N-th descendant.

9. Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.

10. The life span of a group forms a bell-shaped curve.

11. Phyletic variation in point of number of individuals and species form a bell-shaped
curve.

12. Regeneration is a character in the Metazoa derived and modified from primitive binary
fission, perhaps, of the Protozoa.

13. The power of regeneration is submerged or lost in advanced groups due to high speciali¬
zation.

14. Submerged characters of the primitive group may reappear suddenly in the ontogeny
of a higher group.

15. Extreme variation within a group is evidence of group senescence.

16. Phylogerontic (phyletically senescent) groups cannot give rise to new groups.

17. Actual loss of body parts is an indication of degeneracy.

18. When a group actually loses a character it does not appear in a higher group.

19. Severe climatic changes of world-wide dimensions tend to destroy phylogerontic
(phyletic senescen) groups and to establish new groups.

20. When a race span has run, the aberrant species of the group tend to revert back to
some primitive characteristic of the group.

21. When such reversion takes place, the more recently acquired characters will be super¬
imposed on the primitive characters to which the group reverts.

22. There is no positive record of saltation in paleontologic data.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USE

Arthur E. Lockenvitz
Associate Professor of Physics
The University of Texas

Radioactive substances give off three kinds of radiation, namely alpha,
beta and gamma rays. Radioactive measurements are chiefly concerned with
the measurements of the properties of these rays and the effects they pro¬
duce. In addition to the above radiations there are some secondary radia¬
tions such as neutrons, neutrinoes and mesotrons which play an important
role in radioactive technics.

The alphas and betas may be detected directly by virtue of their charge
provided they are present with sufficient intensity. Otherwise their detection
depends on their ability to ionize the matter with which they interact. All
the other radiations are detected by the ionization which they produce di¬
rectly or indirectly in their interaction with matter.

The instruments used to detect or measure the intensity of radioactive

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The Texas Journal of Science

radiations may be classed as follows: 1. Electroscopes. 2. Electrometers with
ionization chambers. 3. Ionization chambers with vacuum tube amplifiers.
4. Proportional counters. 5. Geiger-Mueller counters. 6. Cloud chambers.
7. Photographic plates. 8. Scintillation screens. 9, Crystal counters.

Which of these instruments is the most desirable depends on numerous
factors, such as the particular kind of radiation to be measured, the inten¬
sity of the radiation, the time available for making an observation, the
nature of the information desired from the measurement, the cost of the
equipment compared to the time involved in taking data, etc.

The oldest of these instruments, the thin metal (gold leaf) electro¬
scope, is as sensitive as any of the more refined and elaborate devices. It
consists essentially of a capacity made up of the leaf system and the case.
The gravitational force on the leaf gives the restoring force and the electro¬
static forces between leaf and its surroundings furnish the displacing forces.
The voltage sensitivity of such a system may be expressed in divisions
motion of the leaf per unit change in the potential of the leaf. Since

dX CdX*

Q = CV, dQ = CdV and S = -jrr - therefore, S = — T * and the charge

a V dQ

dX_ S.
dQ ~ C~

sensitivity

1 div.

Here Q = charge on electroscope

V = Voltage across electroscope capacity
X = Deflection of leaf
S = Voltage sensitivity
dX

-j— = Charge sensitivity.
dQ

As an example, suppose an electroscope has a voltage sensitivity of

100 cc. The residual or back-

— a capacity of 10 jujuf and a volume of

ground ionization is of the order of 6 ion pairs per cc. per second. In the
100 cc. there would be formed

100 X 6 X 1.6 X 10‘19 coulombs 10'16 coulombs

sec

1 div x 10"16 coulombs _ 10'5 div

sec

1 0"11 Farad volt sec

or 1 div. in 105 sec., that is, in a little over a day. If, therefore, observations
were made with such an instrument on a radioactive source, it would be pos¬
sible to detect ionization of the order of cosmic ray intensity, provided ob¬
servations were made over a period of about a day.

Electrometers are in reality much refined electroscopes. In general they
may be classed into two groups, the moving string or fiber and the moving
vane. The voltage sensitivities range from about that used in the electro¬
scope example above to about 10,000 times that amount. The capacities,
with the ionization chambers attached, are of the same order of magnitude
as that of the electroscopes. Therefore in general it is possible to make the
same measurements in a corresponding shorter time.

Measuring Instruments and Their Use

83

Because of the ratio of inertia to restoring force of the moving system

it is quite possible that the natural period T = 211 V m or T = 211^ I

K K

may be appreciable for a sensitive instrument. Electrometer periods may
run from the order of .01 sec. to 100 seconds in practice, the longer periods
being in general associated with the greater sensitivities.

Ionization chambers consist of two electrodes generally in an enclosed
space. The region between the electrodes is filled with an appropriate gas.
A potential difference is applied between the electrodes; in series with the
e.m.f. and the condenser, formed by the electrodes, is a current measuring
device, Fig. 1.

The radiation entering the gas between the electrodes ionizes this region
proportional to the intensity of the radiation. The flow of these ions in the
circuit, condenser, battery and current measuring device constitutes a cur¬
rent. F’ig. 2 shows the relation between current and applied e.m.f.

For a given constant rate of ionization the current at first rises more
or less linearly with the voltage across the chamber until a region is reached
where the current is quite constant and independent of the voltage. This
is the region in which the ionization chamber is used. At much higher
voltages the current again rises with increased voltages and this is the
region in which ionization by collision takes place. At very high voltages
an electrical breakdown of the gas occurs.

Strong radioactive sources may produce sufficient ionization so that
the ionization current can be measured with a sensitive D’Arsonval gava-
nometer. For example, a polonium alpha particle source of .01 millicuries
emits 3.7 x 105 alpha particles per second and each alpha particle produces
about 1.6 x 105 ion pairs. Therefore the ionization current would be
3.7 x 105 x 1.6 x 105 x 1.6 x 1 0"19 coulombs ~9A7 x 10"9 amp = 10-8 amp

sec.

approximately. Gamma and beta rays produce much less ionization than alpha
rays and except for the most intense sources, electrometers or vacuum tube
amplifiers of the inverse feed back type must be used to measure the weak
currents. It is possible with these devices to measure currents of the order of
10"14 amp without real difficulty, and with sufficient care and patience it is
possible to push this down by a factor of 10 or 100.

Ionization chambers, proportional counters and Geiger-Mueller counters
all have certain characteristics in common. They all have a condenser with

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The Texas Journal of Science

a potential difference across it, and the dielectric of the condenser is a gas
which is ionized by the radiation to be detected or measured. The chief
differences lie in the voltage applied to the electrodes, the electric circuit
used for detecting the current and to a less extent on the shape of the elec¬
trodes and the nature of the gas between the electrodes.

Fig. 3 shows the relation between pulse size and applied voltage.

All three devices can in principle measure individual particles coming
into the chamber. When used as an ionization chamber the current flowing
in the chamber circuit is due only to the primary ions formed directly or
indirectly by the incoming particle. The proportional region makes use of
the fact that the primary ions can form new ions from the gas if the elec¬
tric field is high enough. Over a certain region of field strength the ampli¬
fication is quite linear with field strength; here the current pulse with a
fixed voltage is linear with the number of primary ions formed.

In the Geiger region the pulse size no longer depends on the extent of
the primary ionization.

The cloud chamber is most useful in certain studies. Here use is made
of the fact that a super cooled vapor will condense on ions. In fact, with a
proper selection of the amount of super cooling, it is possible to select to
some extent the type or ion which serves as a nucleus for the condensation.
Super cooling is produced by suddenly expanding the volume of a vapor.
This is usually done by having a mixture of gas and vapor in a cylinder with
a movable piston. Radiations passing through this cylinder ionize the mixture
of gas and vapor. If the piston is then suddenly moved to increase the
volume a cooling takes place and the vapor condenses in droplets on each
ion. Thus liquid drops mark out the path of the incoming radiation. Alpha
particles are very strong ionizers and will leave a dense thick track of drop¬
lets. Beta particles are much less effective as ionizers and leave a thin track.
Gamma rays produce little ionization directly, but the photoelectrons which
they release from the gas will ionize the gas and thus the photoelectron
tracks will reveal the path of the gamma rays.

All three of the radioactive radiations will affect the photographic
plate. With sufficiently intense radiations the general blackening will serve
as a measure of the intensity of the radiation.

Alpha particles and other heavy charged particles can produce suffi¬
cient energetic photographic action to be detected as individual particles.
They leave tracks in the photographic emulsion much the same in character
as the tracks they leave in cloud chambers, but very much shorter. These
tracks must be observed and measured under a high power microscope.

Measuring Instruments and Their Use

85

Many minerals fluoresce under the action of radiations. Therefore
screens made of these materials can be used for the detection of the radia¬
tions. In general the radiations must be quite intense in order to produce
sufficient fluorescence to be detected by the eye. Individual alpha particles
will produce sufficient fluorescence to be detected by the well rested eye.
The fluorescent flashes due to the individual particles are known as scintilla¬
tions, and scintillation screens are very useful tools for detecting and meas¬
uring even extremely weak alpha sources. Recently electron multiplier tubes
have been used to replace the eye for detecting the scintillations.

Certain crystals such as the diamond when placed between suitable
electrodes and connected to proper circuits will act in much the same way
as Geiger-Mueller counter tubes. These crystal counters are still in a study
and development stage, but it appears as though they already can replace
with some advantage the regular Geiger-Mueller counters in some applica¬
tions.

The electrical circuitry which is associated with radiation measure¬
ments has grown tremendously in complexity during the last forty years.

Fig. 4 shows an elementary counting circuit using a string electrometer
to register the counts. The counting speed of such a circuit is quite low. A
number of arrangements have been devised using vacuum tube circuits to
extinguish the discharge and thus increase the counting speed. Fig. 5 shows
one such arrangement.

For strong radioactive sources the number of counts per second may
be too high for mechanical recording or counting. In this case circuits are
devised to transmit only a definite fraction of the impulses delivered by the
Geiger counter tube. The so-called scale-of-two circuit is used to halve the
number of pulses. Fig. 6 shows one such arrangement. If two scale-of-two

86

The Texas Journal of Science

circuits are put in tandem only /4 of the original count will come through
and the combination would form a scale of 4. In this way scale factors of
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, etc. can be built up.

Fig. 7 shows a multivibrator quenching circuit which performs the
function of Fig. 5 and in addition assures that the pulses coming out are
more equal in size.

If the circuit in Fig. 8 is fed by the output of the multivibrator
circuit, the RC circuit of Fig. 8 will integrate the current pulses and thus
cause the output meter to give a steady reading proportional to the rate at
which the pulses are received. Such an arrangement is known as a rate meter.

LITERATURE CITED

Barnes, S. W. — - 1939 — Ionization Chamber Circuit. Rev. Sci. Inst. 1 (10) : 1.

Wynn-Williams, C. E. and F. A. B. Ward — 1931 — -Linear Amplifier. P. R. S. 131: 391.
Pennick, D. B.— 1935 — D. C. Amplifiers. Rev. Sci. Inst. 6: 117.

Vance, A. W.— 1936— Rev. Sci. Inst. 7: 490.

De Vault, D. — 1941 — Triode scaler. Rev. Sci. Inst. 12: 83.

Koroff, D. — Electron and nuclear counters. Van Nostrand Company.

Strong — Procedures in experimental physics. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Pollard and Davidson — Applied nuclear physics. John Wiley & Sons.

Hoag and Korff — Electron and nuclear physics. D. Van Nostrand Company.

Lapp & Andrews — Nuclear radiation physics. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Stranathan The particles of modern physics. Blakiston Co.

A NEW THERMODYNAMIC CRITERION AT THE CRITICAL
POINT OF MATTER

by R. Plank and L. Riedel
Institute of Technology
Karlsruhe, Germany

INTRODUCTION

Since the first beginning of Thermodynamics much care was applied to
find a legitimate relation between the pressures and temperatures of a satu¬
rated liquid in equilibrium with its vapor. Such a relation would enable one
to predict pressure-temperature values of a substance, for which only a few
experimental data have been collected. An investigation into the very exten¬
sive work done in this field of research leads to the conclusion that all
fundamental knowledge was already present in the classical period of thermo¬
dynamics and that nothing of real importance has been added later.

A New Thermodynamic Criterion

87

The basis of all semi-empirical pressure-temperature formulas is the
equation of Clausius and Clapeyron

dP

L = T (vg- vf)-jp. • . • (1)

where L is the latent heat of vaporization, vg and vf the volumes of satu¬
rated vapor and of boiling liquid, P the pressure and T the absolute tempera¬
ture.

With a series of well known approximations equation (1) leads to a
pressure-temperature formula of the kind

loge P = A - B/T + C logeT + DT + ET2 + FT3+ .... (2)

For a comparatively small region the two terms A - B/T may suffice, but to
represent the pressure temperature curve within large limits of P and T in¬
cluding the critical point at least four terms on the right side of equation
(2) should be applied and the coefficients must be adapted to corresponding
experimental values of P and T. The lack of real knowledge in this field
precludes any statement as to which terms should be added if a higher de¬
gree of accuracy is desired; the number of coefficients should of course re¬
main as low as possible. In the literature besides the terms A - B/T very often
C logeT + DT is found, but not seldom C logeeT is omited and DT + ET2
is given preference; sometimes even more terms of the series of equation (2)
are added. If the results of accurate measurement of pressure and temperature
of a substance are compared with values calculated by means of a formula
of type (2), we mostly find a perfect coincidence at such points, which have
been chosen for the determination of coeffcients A, B, C . . . , but between
these points quite big systematic deviations from the measured values occur.
This indicates that equation (2) is not best adapted to represent the results
of such measurement.

Much more complicated equations, including a great number of con¬
stants, have been proposed to cover exactly a large set of experimental values.
We may mention the equations proposed for steam at the Bureau of
Standards:

1) by Osborne, Stimson, Flock and Ginnings (2)

T log P = aT + b + cx3 + dx5 + ex6 .

T2

where x — - 1

(2a)

298,000

2 ) by Osborne and Meyers ( 3 )

logP ~A + -®-+ C^-(10Dx2-l) + E(loW4) . . . (2b)

where x = T2 - 293,700 and y =:7 374.1 1 -t
t'= T - 273.16

Obviously it is important to find an equation which is equally able to
reproduce the course of the derivative dp/dT. So it is advisable to analyze
first this derivative function.

88

The Texas Journal of Science

THE LOGARITHMIC DERIVATIVE OF THE PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE FUNCTION

We suggest to introduce instead of dP/dT the logarithmic derivative

T dP ... (3)

d log P
a “ d log T

P dT ' ’ '

which we shall call a, and which is dimensionless. Therefore one could ex¬
pect that a, following the law of corresponding states, should be for all sub¬
stances a universal function of the reduced temperature 8 — T/Tc. (The
subscript c always refers to the critical state) . The magnitude a has a defi¬
nite physical meaning, as we can easily find from equation ( 1 ) :

_ L _ L

P(vg-vf) W . ^

W being the external work done in the course of vaporization. So a is the
ratio of the total to the external energy of vaporization.

Using the subscript 1 for the normal boiling point (at 1 Atm) and
neglecting in equation (4) the value of Vf at this normal boiling tempera¬
ture Ti, assuming further that vgi can approximately be expressed in terms
of the law of a perfect gas, we recognize that ai stands in a close relation to
the molar entropy of vaporization Li/Ti. Following the rule of Trouton this
ratio has for normal substances a value of 21 and therefore

ai —

RT1

10.6

(*)

where R = 1.986 is the universal gas constant. As the reduced normal boil¬
ing temperature Si = T/Tc has nearly the same value of 0.64 for all normal
substances it follows that the universal value ai is in conformity with the
law of corresponding states. This law requires also a universal value of at.
which really was found to be approximately equal to 7 for many non-asso¬
ciating substances.

Whilst these considerations are well known and have been used widely,
it seems that the course of ac as a function of temperature has never been
thoroughly analysed. This is strange, as this course certainly influences de¬
cisively the pressure-temperature relation. Bertrand ( 1 ) working on thermo¬
dynamic tables for different substances proposed the formula l/a = aT“b,
in which a and b are constants, and he found that for many substances
b = 0.02. On the other hand one can derive from equation (2) :

= B/T + C + DT + 2 ET2 + 3 FT3+

(6)

With the first two terms on the right a becomes a hyperbolic function of T,
but if we add more terms this function is considerably changed. To find the
real course of a as a function of temperature we should base on extensive
experimental results.

THE NEW CRITERION

The course of the curve a = f (T) can easily be determined for a num¬
ber of substances, for which vapor tables up to the critical point have been
prepared. In Figure 1 some of such curves are shown. Reduced temperatures
8 = T/Tc have been chosen as abscissae to enable for the different curves a
comparison based on the law of corresponding states. As all these curves
would nearly coincide, they have been separated from each other in Figure 1
by displacing the scale of ordinates by one unit for each curve.

A New Thermodynamic Criterion

8 9

The course of these curves becomes very striking in the vicinity of the
critical temperature 8=1. Whilst for CCIF3, C02 and NH3 the values of
a decrease continuously approaching the critical point (the amount of de¬
crease becoming less and less), we find for C2Hg and H20 a minimum of
a slightly below the critical temperature. As the law of corresponding states
suggests a universal course of the a-curves, it seems most improbable that
these curves may show such drastic distinctions for different substances. It
seems more probable that such deviations are caused by some small experi¬
mental errors or by the use of a non-appropriate empirical formula. The
course of the a-curves for CCIF3, C02 and NH3 indicates indeed the ex¬
istence of a minimum value as well, but it would be reached for these sub¬
stances slightly beyond the critical temperature, thus having no real meaning.

It suggests itself to assume the existence of a law, which was not clearly
perceived until now, and which we like to express in the following
hypothesis:

a as a function of temperature has a minimum
at the critical point.

The mathematical formulation is

This is an essential statement as to the behavior of the pressure- tempera¬
ture curve near the critical point. Differentiating equation (3) and using
the new criterion (7) we find the following expression for the second de¬
rivative of the pressure- temperature curve at the critical point:

/ d2P \ P,

90

The Texas Journal of Science

or in reduced values II = P/Pc and S — T/Tc

/ fi2n \

In*- Jr “c (ac_) . (8a)

As for most normal substances ae equals about 7, we find for most sub¬
stance for | j a va^ue about 42.

TESTING THE NEW CRITERION WITH EMPIRICAL PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE

FORMULAS

As may be seen from equation (8) the new criterion means a state¬
ment as to the second derivative of the pressure-temperature curve in the
vicinity of the critical point. But it is well known that if we represent a
measured quantity as a function, small experimental errors are very much
increased in the values of the first derivative. Thus equation (2b) repre¬
senting with extreme accuracy the measurements on steam performed at the
Bureau of Standards gives a value P gj 217.96 Atm. at t = 374° C in the
immediate neighborhood of the critical point. Another equally exact equation
elaborated by Smith, Keyes and Gerry (4)

1 Pc

!og p

x (a4-bx-bcx3+ex4)
T 1 4-dx

. . (2c)

where x — Tc — T, gives a value P = 217.88 Atm. at the same temperature
t .= 374° C. The deviation of the two pressure values is less than 0.05%.
But if the derivative dP/ dT is determinated using both equations at this
temperature we find a deviation of more than 1.4%, equation (2b) giving
2.6307 Atm/degree, whilst equation (2c) gives 2.59376. It is obvious that
much greater deviations must be expected in the values of the second de¬
rivative. Even the most exact empirical formulas are not fit for testing the
validity of the new criterion. Another test based on measured values of the
heat of vaporization L and of the volumes vg and vf using equation (1) is
still less appropriate as it introduces new uncertainties, and means a real
detour.

Applying some of the well known empirical pressure-temperature equa¬
tions and differentiating them twice it is not difficult to calculate the tem¬
perature for which a becomes a minimum. If equation (7) is valid, this tem¬
perature should coincide with the critical temperature. Or one can calculate
from the empirical pressure-temperature equation values of (d2P/dT2)c and
of ac and control whether these values are consistent with equation ( 8 ) . But
one cannot expect very much from all these tests, as all conventional pres¬
sure-temperature equations are not exact enough to allow the calculation of
the second derivative function, and are not set up with a special considera¬
tion of the critical region. The result of a great number of such tests could
neither prove nor disaprove the new hypothesis. Quite many empirical
formulas show a minimum of a far away from the critical point. But as
generally the deviations are not too great and of different signs, for differ¬
ent substances, one can admit that they are due to a non-sufficiently high
degree of accuracy of the equation. Let us restrict ourselves to two examples:

The pressure- temperature-curve of CClFg was represented by L. Riedel

A New Thermodynamic Criterion

(5) in the range from -139° C up to the critical point tc == +28.8° C by
the equation

1109 1?

log P == 7.8172 - y - 0.014127T + 0.1883 x 10‘4 T2;

with this equation a minimum of a is reached not at the critical temperature
of 302° K but at the higher temperature of 328° K. This corresponds with
the a-curve for this substance represented in Fig. 1, and based on this equa¬
tion. With ac — 6. 542 and Pc = 3 8.1 Atm we find in equation (8)
ac (ac - 1 ) Pc/Tc2 = 0.0152 Atm°/K2 and (d2P/dT2)c = 0.0141 Atm/°K2.
This last value is 7% smaller.

For carbon dioxide Meyers and Van Dusen (6) expressed the pressure-
temperature curve between the triple point Ttr = 216.5° K and the critical
point Tc = 304.2° K. by the equation

1°§~^~ — (a + bx+cx2 + dx3 +ex4)

where x = Tc - T and the constants have the values a = 2.98426,
b = -6.22982 x 10‘3, c = 1.05784 x 1 Or4, d J= 9.21483 x IQ'7 and
e =• 3.72320 x 10'9. From this equation we find ac = 6.872, ac (ac“l)Pe/Te2
= 0.0318 Atm/°K2 and (d2P/dT2)c — 0.03 3 3 Atm/°K2. This last value is
here 4.5% too high.

The only substance for which we have very accurate (and very
complicated) pressure-temperature equations is water. We shall treat this
substance separately in paragraph 6.

As it is seen that empirical pressure-temperature equations do not pre¬
sent a sound basis for testing the new criterion, we shall now try to perform
such a test by the immediate use of experimental values employing a suitable
method of calculation.

TESTING THE NEW CRITERION WITH THE IMMEDIATE USE OF
MEASURED VAPOR PRESSURES

The method employed for a great number of substances to check the
validity of the new criterion is as follows:

The measured values (Pi, Ti) and (P2, T2) of two neighboring points
on the pressure-temperature curve are used to form the ratio.

log Ps

Jog Pi
log Tx

(9)

log P2

which with not too great values of the differences T2 - T], can practically

be identified with the derivative function a m

d log P

ture T i.2

Ti

d log T at the mean tempera-
This would be quite exact, if we could consider this

part of the curve being a common parabola. For greater values of T2 - Ti the
calculated value of ai_2 does no more correspond exactly with the mean
temperature T'i_2 but with a somewhat different temperature involving a
systematic error. Each point of the curve appears to some extent shifted
against the true a-curve. But now . we -have to prove that the a-curve pos-

92

The Texas Journal of Science

sesses at the critical point a minimum, that means a horizontal tangent. Such
a behaviour cannot be influenced noticeably by a small horizontal shifting of
the points of the curve; if the new criterion is valid for the a 1.2 curve it
should also be valid for the true a -curve.

Of course it is difficult to decide whether the available measurements
are sufficiently accurate to allow the use of this method, as any accidental
fluctuations within the measured value become highly increased when form¬
ing differences. There are certainly some limits for the applicability of this
method, prescribed by the accuracy of the measurements and by the density
of the measured values on the curve. For some measurements this method
could not be applied at all, as the calculated values for a have shown quite
irregular fluctuations. This was e.g. the case with Porter’s measurement on
Ethane (7), used in tracing the a-curve for this substance in Figure 1. For
so great fluctuations of the measured values there exists no method to deter¬
mine the second derivative function.

All accurate measurements extending to the critical point which have
been available to us have been included in our investigation. Their number is
unfortunately not too high, and it was therefore extremely important that
the numerous measurements of S. Young and his collaborators (8) have
proved to comply with the degree of accuracy desired in this particular
problem. This actually enabled us to perform an extensive test.

In Figures 2 to 4 the results of our calculations of a 1.2 values follow¬
ing equation (9) are represented for 26 substances measured by S. Young;

A New Thermodynamic Criterion

93

Fig. 3

the values of four other substances contained in the investigation of S.
Young have not been considered, as they do not include the critical region.
In these figures again reduced temperatures are selected as abscissae, and the
curves for different substances have been displaced by a certain amount
(recorded for each substance) to avoid coincidence. Young has represented
his experimental results by tables in which pressure values are given for
round values of temperature from 10 to 10 degrees. Thus the differences
To ~ Ti to be used in equation (9) were regarded as prescribed. For some
substances Young gave additional pressure values corresponding to smaller
differences of temperature in the vicinity of the critical point, so that we
were able to calculate more values of a i„2 in this region. Points marked in
the figures 2 to 4 by a square, and situated near the critical temperature
8=1, have been calculated using the critical data themselves. These points
have generally a smaller degree of accuracy due to the small values of T^-Tt
used in their calculation. Figures 2 to 4 show that with this method smooth
curves are obtained, so that the values found seem to be reliable.

The course of all these curves undoubtedly proves the admissibility of
the new criterion, requiring a minimum at the point S = 1, at least within
the limits of accuracy of the measurements used. For quite many substances
the fluctuations in the vicinity of the critical point are very small, so that
the curves can be traced in a very certain manner; this is the case of Isopen-

94

The Texas Journal of Science

Fig. 4

tane and benzene in figure 2, for methyl-formate, ethyl formate and methyl-
acetate in figure 3, for fluorobenzene and acetic acid in figure 4. For all
these substances there is a clear flat minimum at the critical point; the course
of all the other curves is also quite compatible with the assumption of such
a minimum. Figure 5 shows the course of the a -curves for 9 other sub¬
stances, for which reliable values of the vapor pressures are known, mostly
originated from the cryogenic laboratory at Leiden (Holland) .. For sub¬
stances with low boiling points the extension of the temperature field is
certainly restricted; the precision of the measurements should therefore be
higher than for substances with high boiling points, if the same degree of ac¬
curacy for the a -curves is aspired to. The results obtained in Figure 5 are
therefore quite remarkable; they show that the measurements must have
been performed with high precision and they are a further proof for the
correctness of the new criterion. We like to call special attention to the
results with carbon monoxide for which numerous exact measurements have
been made in the vicinity of the critical point (9).

It can be said that all these determinations of a- values based on direct
measurements confirm the validity of the new hypothesis within the limits
of the exactness of the measurements. And this seems also to be true for as¬
sociated substances as is shown by the curves for alcohols and acetic acid;

A New Thermodynamic Criterion

95

Fig. 5

NHS [16]

CFjCl [3]

C2H, [151
CO [U]
N2 [IS]

02 [12]

A [11]
a ie [io]
h2m

96

The Texas Journal of Science

the shape of these curves differs very much from that of normal substances,
but they also show a minimum at the critical point.

THE CASE OF WATER

The substance for which the pressure-temperature curve has been
measured with the highest possible degree of precision is water. Besides the
measurements performed by Holborn and Baumann in 1910 (10) we have
three independent more recent measurement of very high precision
(1), (2), (4), (11), which permit to test the new hypothesis. The results
of these measurements have been represented very exactly by means of differ¬
ent complicated empirical formulas. (See equations (2a) and (2b). The
different measurements and formulas show an excellent agreement as to the
values of the vapor pressures even in the immediate vicinity of the critical
point (deviations less than 0.05%); but in the values of the first deriva¬
tive and of a the deviations reach already about 1.4% as shown in Table 1.
This behaviour confirms our previous statements and makes it very sure
that deviations of the second derivative (influencing the validity of our
hypothesis) are even much higher.

TABLE 1

T dP

Values of a = for water calculated from different empirical

pressure-temperature equations (tc = 374.1 1°C)

Temperature

°C

a-Values of
Smith, Keyes and
Gerry (4)

a- Values of a~V alues of

Osborne, Stimson Osborne and Meyers
Fiock and Ginnings ( 1 ) (2)

100

13.3229

13.3195%

13.3213

150

11.3479

11.3484

11.3473

200

9.8989

9.8997

9.9006

250

8.8343

8.8368

8.8354

300

8.0738

8.0761

8.0762

350

7.6502

7.6431

7.6440

360

7.6369

7.6341

7.6310

365

7.6769

7.6522

7.6475

370

7.6714

7.6911

7.6920

371

7.6786

7.7013

7.7073

372

7.6861

7.7130

7.7265

373

7.6948

7.7259

7.7529

374

7.7041

7.7401

7.8103

Therefore we have preferred to calculate also in the case of water values
of a 1-2 following equation (9) and using directly measured values. The
results are shown in figure 6, where again the curves are displaced to avoid
close coincidence, and where a bigger scale was selected for the ordinates
due to the higher precision of the measurements.

The trend of these curves near to the critical point is very surpris¬
ing. The minimum value of a, which in our hypothesis was always ex-

A New Thermodynamic Criterion

97

pected to be at the critical temperature S = 1 is here already reached at the
somewhat lower temperature of about S = 0.98. Between the temperatures of
0.98 and 1.0 there is an unexpectedly steep increase of a. But whilst the
pressure values of all investigators nearly coincide up to 8 = .0.98, there are
quite remarkable deviations for 8 > 0.98. The surprising increase of a within
this last region is much smaller in the measurement made at MIT (by Smith,
Keyes and Gerry [4] ) than in those made at the Bureau of Standards (by
Osborne and Meyers [2]). These deviations clearly demonstrate the extreme
experimental difficulties encountered at the critical region. In spite of the
fact that most qualified investigators have, treated this region using experi¬
mental equipment of highest accuracy, some uncertainties of the values of

- and a still remain,
d I

But there is no doubt that the results of all measurements mentioned
above clearly indicate that our new criterion is not strongly valid for water.
The question must be raised, whether water, which is known to behave ab¬
normally in every respect, forms in this case an exception, or whether such
deviations from the proposed criterion can be expected also with other sub¬
stances. The course of several curves represented in figures 2 to 5 may indeed
give rise to some doubt whether the new criterion is universally valid. This
is the case for hexane, heptane and diisobutyl in figure 2, for a few esters in
figure 3 and for methyl alcohol in figure 4. But for -all these substances the
available measurements are surely not accurate enough to allow a final de¬
cision on this question. For a great majority of substances there is no experi¬
mental evidence contradicting the new criterion; but in the present state of
our knowledge we may better define it in claiming that the a -curve shows
a minimum at or very close to the critical point. This restriction may be re¬
grettable from a theoretical point of view, but it does not degrade the prac¬
tical signification of the criterion.

IMPORTANCE AND APPLICATION OF THE NEW CRITERION

Independent of the strong or restricted validity of the new criterion, it
can be applied to set up reasonable pressure-temperature equations and to
determine the coefficient entering such equations. All equations which do
not show a minimum of a at or close to the critical point should be rejected,
if we like to include the critical region.

From equation (2), which is mostly applied, equation 6 was derived. If
Tm is the temperature at which a has a minimum value, then Tm is connected
with the coefficients of equation (2) by the condition

B = Tm2 (D + 4ETm + 9FT2+ . . . . ) . (10)

and Tm must be equal or very close to Tc.

It is therefore obvious, that a pressure-temperature relation of the type
B

log P = A - — + C log T, which is in common use, cannot be applied up

to the critical point, but should be restricted to lower temperatures.

A four-term equation of a generalized type

log P = A - B/T + C log T + DTn . (11)

leads to the condition

B = n2 DTin11+1

(10a)

98 The Texas Journal of Science

or with n — 1

B fl DTm2 . . (10b)

Equation (11) with n |§ 1 is used very extensively, but the numerical
values of B and D generally lead to values of Tm = V B/D which differ
very much from the critical Temperature Tc. Such values of B and D are
inconsistent with the real behaviour of matter in the critical region; pressure
values derived from such an equation may coincide with the measurements
at the temperatures which have been used to determine the coefficients A to
D, but at intermediate temperatures no good agreemnt can be expected.

Of course with more terms in equation (2) a better agreement will be
reached, but we have found that with even only four terms a good agree¬
ment with measured values can be obtained if we put n -> 1. Preliminary
calculations with a few substances have shown that putting n = 5 or 6 and
using equation (10a) with Tm = Tc a very good agreement can be obtained.

The results of such a calculation may be shown for carbon monoxide,
for which the vapor pressure curve was determined very exactly by Cromme-
lin, Bijleveld and Brown [9] with many values in the close vicinity of the
critical point. These authors have expressed their results by means of the
equation

log P = 24.45338 - 544.66/T- 10.217 log T + 0.02178T . . . (12)
which does not satisfy condition (10b) giving Tm = 158, whilst Tc —
132.47. So the minimum of a would appear at a reduced temperature
Sm — Tm/Tc = 1.192, which is very improbable.

We have found that the whole set of experimental values can be equally
well represented by equation

log P f§ 8.86774 - 401.314/T - 2.06895 log T + 0.01 524 (T/100) 6 . .

• * ‘ * <13)

satisfying condition (10b).

A comparison of the deviations from experimental values obtained with
these two equations is shown in Table 2. It can be seen that equation (13)
containing only three constants (n = 6 is regarded as universal value and B
is calculated with equation (10a) putting Tm =s Tc) represents the experi¬
mental results in this wide pressure region with the same average accuracy as
equation (12).

Equally good results have been obtained with CClFa using equation (11)
with n = 6 and satisfying ondition (10a). Here measurements of L. Riedel
have been taken in consideration.

We would like to suggest that equation (11) with n = 6 combined with
condition (10a) should be used also for other substances to represent vapor-
pressure values up to the critical point. The constant A in equation (11) can
be eliminated through the critical values Pc. and Tc. Using reduced values for
the pressure and for the temperature the vapor-pressure equation becomes

log n = C log 8 + D’ (8« - — + 35)

O

containing only two empirical coefficients, C and D’ = DTC6.

The new criterion can also be used for the determination of the critical
pressure, if direct measurements are not available, by extrapolating equation
(11) up to the critical temperature.

A New Thermodynamic Criterion

99

Attempts to prove the validity of the new criterion (7) by means of
theoretical thermodynamic considerations have not yet been successful; one
arrives always at undetermined expressions for (da/ dT) c. The criterion could
only be based on experimental evidence. The condition is here just the same
as with the statement of Bennewitz and Speitberger [ 1 2 ] establishing
(S2P/8T2)y being zero at the critical point. Even the first and second laws of
thermodynamics are to be considered as empiric statements, which can only
be demonstrated by experience and for which no theoretical proof can be
given.

table 2

Comparison of vapor-pressure values for carbon monoxide following
equations (12) and (13) with measurement of Crommelin, Bijleveld and
Brown (9) .

Temperature

Vapor Pressure

Deviations A log P

T°K

Measured

Equation (12) Equation (13)

P Atm

132,47

33,902

-0,00000

+ 0,00003

131.82

32,911

-

21

+

13

129,23

29,184

-

96

+

48

129,23

29.160

-

131

+

21

125.96

25,014

-

58

-

91

123.46

22.152

+

2

-

153

112.20

12.072

+

165

-

174

107.62

9.082

+

23

+

37

103.48

6.922

+

160

-

60

94,34

3,473

-

263

-

168

87.61

1,8833

+

17

-

1

81.45

0.98131

-

39

-

28

77.96

0.64566

+

1

-

71

73.85

0.37197

-

10

-

1

73.85

0.37198

-

9

-

1

73.86

0.37237

-

44

+

46

68.17

0.15387

+

93

+

154

68.14

0.15292

+

144

+

203

LITERATURE CITED

Osborne, N. S., Stimson, H. F., Fiock, E. F. and D. C. Ginnings — 1933 — Bureau of Standards,
J. Res. 10 : 155.

Osborne, N. S. and C. H. Meyer — 1934 — Bur. of Standards, J. Res. 13: 1.

Bertrand — 1887 — Thermodynamique. Paris. Page 157.

Smith, L. R., Keyes, F. G. and H. T. Gerry- — 1934 — Proc. Amer. Acad. 69 : 137.

Riedel, L. — 1941 — Zeitschr. ges. Kelteind. 48: 9, 89.

Meyers, C. H. and M. S. Van Dusen — 1926— Refr. Eng. 13: 180.

Porter, F. — 1926— J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 48: 2055.

Young, S. — 1910 — Scient. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. 12: 374.

Crommelin, C. A., Bijleveld, W. T. and E. G. Brown — 1931 — Comm. Leiden Nr. 217.

Holborn, L. and A. Baumann — 1910 — Ann. d. Physik 31 : 945.

Egerton, A. and G. S. Callendar — 1932 — Phil. Trans. Roy Soc. London 231 : 147.

Bennewitz, K. and E. Splitberger — 1926 — Zeitschr. Phys. Chemie. 124 : 49.

100

The Texas Journal of Science

RADIOACTIVE TRACERS IN CHEMICAL RESEARCH
L. O. Morgan

Assistant Professor of Chemistry
The University of Texas

The speakers whom you are to hear in the talks following this one will
no doubt present many of the applications of radioactive tracers in the
fields of biochemistry, biology and medicine. The general features of such
applications are quite similar to those which one would consider in the
study of applications to strictly chemical research. This being so, I shall
restrict this presentation to applications in the fields of inorganic and
physical chemistry.

Radioistopes may be used in chemical and physical studies in a wide
variety of ways, not all of them falling within the scope of this discussion.
Very roughly, the types of study may be categorized as follows:

1. Radiation chemistry, in which the chemical effects of alpha, beta
and gamma rays are studied.

2. The chemistry of “hot” atoms. Some radioisotopes are produced in
an excited state which can then emit gamma radiation to produce the
ground state of the isotope. The large amount of energy released in the in¬
terior of the atom gives rise to some rather profound changes in the mole¬
cule of which the “hot” atom is a part.

3. Tracer chemistry. It is assumed that in the first approximation the
chemical behavior of a radioisotope of a given element is the same as that
of the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes of that element and, hence,
that the radioisotope may be used as a stand-in for the natural element.
Since the location of the radioisotope may be readily determined, the tracer
serves to indicate the location of the gross element.

Strictly speaking, tracer chemistry is a form of analytical chemistry,
having some quite unusual and advantageous features:

a) Extremely small amounts of material may be detected. With opti¬
mum conditions one could locate and follow 10-20 thousand atoms, al¬
though amounts as small as this are not generally used.

b) Measurements may be made without interrupting the operation of
the system. In many cases the radiation from a given radioisotope is suffi¬
ciently penetrating that it may be detected externally with respect to the
entire system and for some applications such a measurement obviates the
necessity for physical sampling. This method finds its most useful appli¬
cations in the study of the biological systems, but is becoming more and
more widely used in laboratory and industrial studies. For example, one may
wish to follow the progress of the boundary between two phases in a dy¬
namic system. If one of the phases contains a radioactive material, it is only
necessary that one shift the detector along the vessel until a discontinuity
in the amount of radiation is detected, thus locating the position of the
boundary. Diffusion rates may be measured in the same way, the only limi¬
tation being that the appropriate radioisotope have sufficiently penetrating
radiation to be detected outside the containing vessel.

c) Because of the small amounts of material that can be readily
detected, it is possible to study the behavior of small amounts of material
in solutions whose physical nature is almost completely determined by the

Radioactive Tracers in Chemical Research

101

presence of large amounts of one or more other materials (macrocompo¬
nents). For instance, it is of great interest to know how certain molecules
distribute themselves between two phases, say liquid-liquid or liquid-solid
phases, under a given set of conditions. If amounts of material large enough
to be detected by the usual methods are used, their presence may change
the nature of the phases. Under these conditions a rate study would demand
the consideration of gross changes in the entire system as well as the par¬
ticular rate being studied. However, the use of a microcomponent, for
which the tracer technique applies admirably, would minimize, or remove
completely, the difficulties.

d) The tracer technique is able to differentiate between atoms coming
from different sources. Anderson, in 193 6, (Z. physik. Chem. B32, (1936) )
was able to show that the structure of thiosulfate ions involved non-equiva¬
lent sulfur atoms. Using the reaction:

S + SO3— - S20s=

he added radioactive S35 (half-life =87 days) in the form of elemental
sulfur to a sulfite solution to form radioactive thiosulfate. Upon acidifying
the thiosulfate solution, he found that the radioactivity was almost all in
the sulfur from the decomposition of thiosulfate, and none was with the
sulfite. If the sulfur atoms were equivalent in. the thiosulfate, the activity
would have been equally distributed between the sulfur and the sulfite.
Radioactive sulfite and inactive sulfur used in the same reaction leads to the
same conclusion. Of the structures, having non-equivalent sulfur atoms,
that might be postulated for thiosulfate the most likely is:

O

II

o-s-o

II

s

which is entirely analogous to the structure of the sulfate ion, replacing one
oxygen with a sulfur atom.

e) Radioisotopes may be used in the study of chemical elements which
do not exist in nature. Such studies on the chemical behavior of plutonium,
using small amounts of plutonium-23 8, produced in cyclotron bombard¬
ments, resulted in the elucidation of the fundamental chemistry of the pre¬
viously unknown element. The facts thus found were used later in the de¬
vising of procedures for the separation of large quantities of the material
produced in fission reactors and were found to be accurate, although the
scale-up factor amounted to some hundreds of millions.

In studies of this type, it is necessary to study the behavior of the
tracer with respect to macrocomponents whose chemistry is known or can
be determined by ordinary methods. Then by means of analogy the chem¬
istry of the trace element may be deduced. The general method has been
successfully applied to the study of the chemical properties of element 61,
technetium (43), francium (87), astatine (85), americium (95) and
curium (96). Earlier work of the same general type was done on actinium
(89), protactinium (91) and polonium (84). None of these elements, with
the exception of protoactinium, exist to any significant amount in nature.

102

The Texas Journal of Science

The latter has lately been produced on the gram scale using information
gained with tracer studies.

It must be obvious that in this brief time there has not been possible
a complete presentation of the potentialities and actualities of the tracer
method as applied to chemical research. The adsorption of small quantities
of material on active surfaces, kinetic studies of complex systems, analyses
of materials whose quantitative determination is otherwise difficult or im¬
possible; all these, and more, have been successfully attacked by the methods
of tracer chemistry.

BIOCHEMICAL APPLICATION OF TRACERS *

Wiktor W. Nowinski

Associate Professor of Neurochemistry and Research Associate
Tissue Culture Laboratory
University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston, Texas

The progress of our present-day science is essentially a progress in
methods and technique. As soon, therefore, as the first possibility of the
production of isotopes on a large scale occurred, the biochemist immedi¬
ately became interested in the application of tracers, seeing in it an im¬
portant tool for research and a new approach to his problems. In the great
majority of cases, the biochemist has considerable difficulty in isolating
the intermediate products of reactions; therefore, the ability to investigate
the fate of labeled substrates and inorganic components in the metabolism
of the body and thus following reactions step by step, seems to open new
and extremely important horizons.

The idea of using isotopes in biochemistry occurred for the first time
to Hevesy, exactly twenty-five years ago (1923). He diluted the nitrate
of Pb212 with nitrate of common lead and studied the distribution of this
element after immersing roots of Leguminosae in the solution for 24 hours,
and estimating afterwards the radioactivity of the ash. He found that not
only does the root take up lead in great quantities, but also that this ele¬
ment is in the plant in a dissociated form and, therefore, is not combined
with an organic compound.

The discovery of deuterium in 1932 (Urey) and the production of
heavy water in relatively large amounts, which followed two years later,
enabled the biochemist to use this compound extensively, particularly in
the study of the fate and metabolism of water in the organism. The prob¬
lem of heavy water, and particularly that of its toxicity, aroused a con¬
siderable interest, an interest which found its way even into a detective
story by Van Dine ("The Casino Murder Case”), where a man is supposed
to be poisoned by heavy water placed in a decanter, instead of ordinary
water. We know, however, that heavy water was found non-toxic after
all and that according to Hevesy and Hofer (1934), the ingestion of two
liters of a strong solution does not produce harmful effects: to the same
conclusion, by the way, comes Van Dine’s detective also!

* Aided by American Cancer Society Grant CP-12A, administered by C. M'. Pomerat.

Read at the Symposium on “The Use of Tracer Elements in Research” at the meeting- of the
Texas Academy of Science in San Antonio, Texas.

Biochemical Application of Tracers

103

Along with the development of the technique of isotope preparation,
the use of the tracers became more and more extensive and we already face
a very large literature on this subject, as may be judged from the book by
Kamen (1947) and the recently published symposium on the use of isotopes
in biology and medicine (1948), the excellent book by Hevesy (1948) and
others. As in all such situations, we can observe also a certain abuse of the
method. There is work carried out with it, which actually could be done
with simpler methods at much lower cost.

Because of the very large literature on the use of tracers in biochemistry,
it is not possible to give even a very general survey in a short space. We
pick out, therefore, some interesting examples on the basis of which the
great importance of isotopes in biochemical research could be demonstrated.

The tracers are widely used in almost all branches of biochemistry,
namely:

1. The fate of organic compounds in the body and their synthesis
(this includes the substrates for enzymatic activity as well).

2. Enzymatic activity and its mechanism.

3. Distribution and metabolism of inorganic compounds, including
the problems of electrolytes.

4. Permeability.

As far as the first point, the fate of organic compounds and their
synthesis in the organism, is concerned, the work on the formation of amino
acids and the synthesis of glutathione, may serve as an example.

Foster, Schoenheimer and Rittenberg (1939) and Rittenberg, Shoen-
heimer and Keston (1939) showed that rats fed labeled ammonia, use it
for the synthesis of amino acids; they, furthermore, found the isotope in
the glutathione (a tripeptide, Glutamyl-Cysteinyl-Glycine) , which was iso¬
lated from the liver and intestines of rabbits. Some 69 per cent of the tracer
was deposited in the glutamic acid and there was four times less of the
isotope in the isolated cystein than in the glycine. The amount of isotope,
however, isolated from the rest of the liver proteins, corresponded to l/lOth
of that in the glutathione. From these results the authors concluded that
the synthesis of glutathione is quicker than that of the cell proteins. They
found, furthermore, that the liver protein fraction contains twice the
amount of the tracer than does the non-protein fraction; this showed the
direct utilization of ammonia for the synthesis of proteins.

In 1941, Waelsh and Rittenberg labeled glycine (with N15) and ob¬
served that already by 2V2 hours after administration, this amino acid was
taken up much quicker by glutathione than by the liver proteins. In 1942,
the same authors produced evidence that labeled glutamic acid is incor¬
porated into the glutathione of the intestines and the liver of the rat and
that it is found in much greater quantities in glutathione than in the rest
of the proteins of the same organs.

One step further in the direction of synthesis of glutathione in the
organism was made by Bloch and Anker (1947) who incubated in vitro rat
liver slices with labeled glycine. They found that the synthesis of gluta¬
thione occurred at a rate of 0.1 to 0.2 mg per 1 g of tissue and 1 hour of
incubation, which corresponds to the results of Waelsch and Rittenberg
in vivo. Bloch and Anker demonstrated also that minute amounts of the
tracers were present in a fraction precipitable by trichloracetic acid, con-

104

The Texas Journal of Science

eluding from this fact that the liver is capable of synthesizing proteins
even in vitro. Some evidence that the synthesis actually takes places had
already been indicated by the work of Anifsen, Beloff, Hastings and Solo¬
mon ( 1 947 ) who labeled the carboxyl groups of aspartic and glutamic
acids with C14, and also from the work of Melchior and Traver (1947) who
worked with labeled methionine.

We can see from the example mentioned that not only the fact of a
direct synthesis in vivo and in vitro of glutathione from cysteine, glycine
and glutamic acid was demonstrated, but also that there is a competitive
synthesis between glutathione and the liver proteins. The speed of the
synthesis of the glutathione was also demonstrated, a finding which hardly
could be investigated with the usual methods, because of the small amounts
of compound which are formed.

For the enzymologist, the use of tracers presents a particular interest.
Let’s take as an example the problem of C02 assimilation in certain bac¬
teria, and the fixation of the carbon dioxide in reaction products. Baker
and Kamen (1945) found that Clostridium thermoaceticum assimilates
labeled carbon (C14) and forms acetate during fermentation. In this acetate
both carbons are labeled; the reaction is as follows:

C6Hi20« + 2H20 - > 2CH3COOH + 2C02 + 8H

2C:: 02 + 8H - > C*H3.C*OOH +. 2H20

We see here that the isotope was fixed in the acetic acid both in the
methyl group as well '.as in the carboxyl group.

Krampitz, Wood and Workman (1943) isolated an enzyme from
Micrococcus lysideikticus, the oxalacetate p-carboxylase. This enzyme con¬
verts oxalacetic acid into pyruvic acid. When oxalacetate was incubated
with labeled C02 (C13) until half of the acetate was converted into
pyruvate, it was found that the oxalic acid which remained contained the
tracer in the carboxylic group situated near the methylene group:

CH3 . CH . COOH + C*02 - > HOOC* . CH2 . CO . COOH

These results confirm the extraordinary specificity of enzymatic ac¬
tivity, because they show that the enzyme exclusively attacks one definite
group, located in a definite position. We knew about this specificity from
experiments with classical methods, but the use of tracers enables us to point
out the group directly. There is, however, another interesting aspect of the
work of Krampitz, Wood and Workman: as were present in the digest only
substrate, the enzyme preparation and C02 (plus added magnesium ions)
and the tracer was found only in the oxalacetate, the reversibility of the
reaction was directly demonstrated, i.e., the formation of oxalacetic acid
from pyruvic acid.

In a similar way, Weinman, Morehouse and Winsler (1947) showed
that succinic acid labeled with deuterium exchanges hydrogen ions in
positions £ and £i from the solution in which it is dissolved, thus confirming
the succinic acid contains two hydrogens in the mentioned position which
can be activated and, therefore, that the succinic acid dehydrogenase, by
splitting off these hydrogens, converts succinic acid into fumaric acid:

CFI2 .COOH CH .COOH

I |J + 2H

CH2 .COOH CH .COOH

Biochemical Action of Tracers

105

The metabolism and importance of inorganic constituents of the body
were also extensively studied. The problem of iodine metabolism and iodine
fixation in the thyroid was investigated in detail (see for instance Chaikoff
and Taurog, 1948). Greenberg and his associates using isotopes, confirmed
directly the fact, that in the case of ricketts, there are disturbances in the
phosphorus assimilation, but not — as it was once supposed — in that of
calcium. Also, the fate of iron was studied to a great extent. So, for instance,
it was shown (Granick and Hahn, 1944) that great quantities of labeled
iron in its ferric state are taken up by blood and in a few hours deposited
in the liver. Hahn, Granick, Bale and Michaelis (1943) made the follow¬
ing experiment: after bleeding a dog, they injected ferric ammonium sulfate
in which the iron was labeled, feeding the animal liver at the same time
in order to stimulate the hematopoisis. They observed a very rapid regen¬
eration of erythrocytes with the iron isotope as a component of the heme
of the hemoglobin. Of this labeled blood 110 ml. were injected into a nor¬
mal dog which received on the next day an injection of acetylphenylhydrazine
in order to increase the destruction of red blood corpuscles. In a subsequent
analysis of the ferritin, an iron-protein compound, in the liver and the
spleen of this animal they demonstrated a direct passage of heme into the
ferritin, obtained in crystalline form.

The study of permeability with tracers permits a direct determina¬
tion of the passage of a compound through the cellular membrane (Brooks
and Brooks, 1941). In the course of such studies it appeared, however, that
the permeability of the isotopes may be different from that of the stable
element. In spite of this handicap, by combining different methods with
that of tracers, the passage of a compound may be fairly well evaluated.
Unless, therefore, it is definitely proven that the rate of permeability of
the isotope is equal to that of the stable element, no decisive conclusions
can be drawn from the tracer experiments alone.

I have made an attempt, in the short time at my disposal, to demon¬
strate the diversity of problems which can be studied with tracer elements.
However, there is one problem, which seems to me to be the fundamental
problem of all biochemistry and towards which all our research is actually
directed: how the organic and inorganic compounds in the cell are con¬
verted into living matter? Are there any hopes that the use of tracers will
bring us nearer to its solution?

I am quite aware of the fact that to play a role of prophet is both
unrewarding and dangerous. Our approach to the formation of living mat¬
ter may be, after all, not so much a question of methods and techniques
but of our mental attitude: maybe that we are sometimes a little too vitalis-
tically, another time too mechanistically inclined. It may be that we cannot
yet understand the fact that organization is not an exclusive attribute of
living matter (a heritage, I think, from Aristotle), but that it can be traced
on different levels throughout the organic and inorganic world (Needham
1942). It seems to me that potentially, at any rate, the use of isotopes may
throw a certain light upon this fundamental problem. To some scientists
it may seem that it is not a scientific problem at all, that it belongs rather
to the realm of metaphysics. In my opinion, however, attempts to approach
it have always to be in our minds and I fully agree with Roger J. Williams
who in his book "The Human Frontier,” says: "In the broadest sense, any

10 6 The Texas Journal of Science

kind of investigation which has for its purpose the discovery of truth is
scientific.”

LITERATURE CITED

Anifsen, C. B., Beloff, Anne, Hastings, A. B., and Solomon, A. K. — 1947 — J. Biol. Chem.
168: 771.

Barker, H. A. and Kamen, M. D. — 1945 — Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 31 : 219.

Block, K. and Anker, H. S. — 1947 — J. Biol. Chem. 169: 467.

Brooks, S. and Brooks, M. M. — 1941 — The permeability of living cells. Gebr. Borntraeger,
Berlin.

Chaikoff, J. L. and Taurog, A. — 1948 — A symposium on the use of isotopes in biology and
medicine. Univ. Wis. Press.

Foster, G. L., Schoenheimer, R. and Rittenberg — 1939 — J. Biol. Chem. 127: 319.

Granick, S. and Hahn, P. — 1944 — J. Biol. Chem. 155: 661.

Hahn, P„ Granick, S., Bale, W., and Miehaelis, L. — 1943 — J. Biol. Chem. 150: 407.

Hervesy, G. — 1923 — Biochem. J. 17: 439.

BBSS! — 1 T v '1948- — Radioactive indicators. Interscience Publishers, Inc. New York.
- and Hofer, E. — 1948 — Nature 134: 879.

Kamen, M. D. — 1947 — Radioactive tracers in biology. Academic Press Inc. New York.
Krampitz, L. O., Wood, H. G. and Workman, C. H. — 1943 — J. Biol. Chem. 147: 243.
Melchior, J. and Traver, H. — 1947 — Arch. Biochem. 12 : 309.

Needham, J. — 1942 — Biochemistry and morphogensis. Cambridge University Press.

Rittenberg, D., Schoenheimer, R. and Keston, A. S. — 1939 — J. Biol. Chem. 128 : 603.
Symposium on the Use of Isotopes in Biology and Medicine — 1948 — niv. Wis. Press. Madison.
Waelsch, H. and Rittenberg, D. — 1941 — J. Biol. Chem. 139: 761.

- 1942 — J. Biol. Chem. 144: 53.

Weiman, E. O., Morehouse, M. G. and Winzler, R. J. — -1947 — J. Biol. Chem. 168 : 717.
Williams, Roger J.- — 1946 — The human frontier. Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York.

APPLICATION OF TRACERS IN BIOLOGY AND GENETICS

Robert P. Wagner
Department of Zoology
The University of Texas

The exceedingly wide application of stable and radioactive isotopes
in the field of biology precludes presenting a summary of the methods and
results obtained in the short time I have at my disposal. Such varied aspects
of physiology as the transfer of materials across the cell surface, transport
of materials in plants, photosynthesis, physiological activity of chemical
compounds in intermediate metabolism, etc., have been investigated with
the use of isotopes as tracers, and in many cases fruitful results have been
obtained. It is my purpose here to go into some detail concerning one spe¬
cific biological problem involving the use of tracers, and to use this as an
example of the methodology used, the line of reasoning employed and the
results obtained.

The specific problem I refer to is the determination of the biological
role of the nucleic acids in the cell. The nucleic acids, in combination with
proteins to form the complex nucleoproteins, are universally present in liv¬
ing matter. All organisms from the virus on up have this group of com¬
pounds represented as important chemical constituents.

The virus seems to be little more than a certain type of nucleoprotein
capable of reproducing itself. The chromosomes in the nuclei of the cells
of higher forms of organisms are mostly nucleoprotein, and the cytoplasm
of these cells is nearly always liberally endowed with it. In addition, break¬
down products of the nucleic acids are in most cases present, particularly
in the cytoplasm, where they function as important compounds in metab¬
olism. Chemical analysis of the nucleic acid portion of the nucleoprotein
complexes have shown that there are two general types, desoxyribonucleic

Tracers in Biology and Genetics

107

acid confined to the nucleus, and ribonucleic acid found both in the nucleus
and cytoplasm but usually more highly concentrated in the cytoplasm. In¬
vestigation of the chemistry of the chromosomes has revealed that desoxyri¬
bonucleic acid is present in a relatively high concentration in those regions
which genetic analysis has indicated to be the site of the genes, or at least
the sites which appear to have gene activity. Studies on the ribonucleic acids
in the nucleus and cytoplasm have indicated that they may be involved as
a source of material for synthesis of desoxyribonucleic acid and more im¬
portant as sites of protein synthesis.

These general observations concerning the nucleic acids make it obvious
that they play a very important role in cell biology. They seem in all cases
to be associated with the reproductive capacity of the cell, i.e., the ability
of the organism to reduplicate itself. In addition the specific type, ^desoxyri¬
bonucleic acid, appears in combination with its protein to be the chemical
constituent which determines, in part, the final characteristics of the or¬
ganism, due to its intimate association with the regions of the chromo¬
somes where the genes are most likely located. Supporting evidence for this
probable role comes from the previously mentioned observation that the
nucleic acids may be involved in the synthesis of proteins. The relationship
of the role of the nucleic acids in protein synthesis to their presumed role

as the determiners of the characters of organisms is not at first sight evi¬

dent. But when it is remembered that the physiological functions of the or¬
ganism which determine its characteristics are actually, to a large extent,
if not completely, made up of complexes of biochemical reactions which

are in turn under the control of specific enzymes or catalysts, then the

relationship becomes clear. For enzymes are proteins, each enzyme being a
specific type of protein which controls a specific type of biochemical re¬
action. Thus specific proteins must control final characters, and the spe-
cicity of the protein must be given to it when it is synthesized.

The problem, as can be seen by its statement above, is an important
and complex one. Let us now consider what further information has been
gotten concerning it by the use of the radioactive isotope P32. This isotope
is a valuable one to use in this connection, because of the fact that all
nucleic acids have phosphoric acid as an important part of their molecules,
the phosporic acid being important not only from the structural, but from
the functional point of view as well. The usual method of getting the P32
into the cell is by feeding it to the organism in the form of inorganic phos¬
phate, such as disodium hydrogen phosphate. If the organism used is a
complex one such as a rat, the labeled phosphate will be found in the tissue
cells within a few hours after injestion in maximum concentration provided
no further labeled material is injested. Once the level of the labeled phos¬
phate has reached a temporary stability ( which will be changed mainly
by excretion) in the tissue fluids and in the cells themselves, one may
proceed to determine what specifically is happening to the atoms of P32
within the cell. Since we are interested here in the phosphate tied up to the
nucleic acid in the cell, we proceed as follows: Several hours or days after
injestion of the labeled phosphate the rat is killed, certain of the organs
removed and the desoxyribonucleic acid, let us say, isolated from the rest
of the cell contents by chemical means. The specific activity (counts/unit
time/mg.) of the P in the compound is determined and also the specific
activity of the P in the inorganic phosphate of the cell which is assumed

108

The Texas Journal of Science

to form the reservoir of available phosphate. The ratio
specific activity of nucleic acid P

X 100

specific activity of inorganic P
is calculated. This term is called the percent turnover of phosphate in
nucleic acid, or more simply the phosphate turn-over rate of nucleic acid.
The general assumption is now made that the high rate of turnover of a
compound during a physiological process implies that this compound may
be important in the process, particularly if the high rate of turnover is
unique to that compound, and is not found at all or to any great extent
in other compounds with similar atoms. Thus the turnover rate in nucleic
acid phosphate is taken to be a measure of the activity of the nucleic acid
in performing its biological role. The validity of this assumption is by no
means yet proven, but it may be used tentatively as an indicator, pending
further information on the activity of nucleic acids.

Experiments performed employing this technique on rats have yielded
very interesting results. They show that the turnover of phosphate in the
desoxyribonucleic acid in adult rats is measurable, but much lower than
the phosphate turnover in the ribonucleic acid. For example, the phosphate
turnover in adult rat liver ribonucleic acid is about 3 3 times greater than
the desoxyribonucleic acid turnover. All other organs examined showed ap¬
proximately the same relationship between the ribo and desoxy acids. With
regard to the differences between adult organs in the desoxyribonucleic acid
turnover it was found that in general those organs which carry on active
secretion or cell proliferation were highest in rate of phosphate turnover.
If, on the other hand, phosphate turnover is determined in the nucleic acids
of foetal or regenerating rat tissues, the turnover was found to be much
higher in both types of nucleic acids than is the case in adult tissues. In
addition the difference between the turnover rates in desoxyribo- and ribo¬
nucleic acid is not as marked, and in some cases the turnover of the former
may exceed the latter, a condition just opposite to that found in adult
tissues.

A tentative conclusion may be made here from these results to the
effect that the turnover of nucleic acid phosphate, particularly that of the
desoxyribonicleic acid is stimulated by cell division. Support for this con¬
clusion may be drawn from other experiments involving P32. It is known
that irradiation with X-rays inhibits mitosis (cell division) in tissues. If
tissues from rats irradiated with X-rays are examined with respect to turn¬
over it is found that these tissues have a much lower turnover of desoxyri¬
bonucleic acid phosphate than the control tissues. Another experiment of
interest in this connection is one concerning the phosphate turnover of the
hen erythrocyte. The erythrocytes of birds are nucleated cells formed in
the red bone marrow which do not undergo mitosis in the blood stream.
P32 may be introduced into these cells while they are being produced in the
bone marrow and the labeled cells then followed into the blood stream.
Here it is found that all phosphate compounds in the cells lose the labeled
phosphate by exchange with unlabeled phosphate in the blood plasma except
the desoxyribonucleic acid which retains the P32 for the duration of the life
of the cell. These data make our conclusion seem convincing, and we may
modify it now to state that the turnover of desoxyribonucleic acid is defi¬
nitely correlated with mitosis or cell reproduction. The role of ribonucleic
acid is, however, not made much clearer by these experiments, for while

Tracers in the Field of Medicine

109

it is true that the rate of phosphate turnover goes up in this compound
during mitotic activity, the fact still remains that ribonucleic acid is very
active in resting cells, whereas desoxyribonucleic acid is quite inactive.

Yeast cells have been used in experiments with P32 phosphate in an at¬
tempt to definitely link the nucleic acids with the synthesis of protein. The
procedure in this case was to determine the phosphate turnover of all phas-
phate compounds in the cell in the presence and in the absence of a source
of nitrogen. Phosphate turnover was much higher when the cells were
incubated with a source of nitrogen insufficient to provide for cell division
for nearly all phosphate compounds including the nucleic acids, than when
the cells were incubated in a nitrogen free medium. These results are in¬
conclusive as far as the nucleic acids and protein synthesis are concerned,
and we can only conclude that phosphate turnover goes up in general when
protein synthesis is actively proceeding in the cell.

The use of tracers in the problem of the role of the nucleic acids in
the cell has thrown light on some aspects, and raised further questions con¬
cerning certain other aspects. Certainly the supposition that the nucleic
acids are important in cell reproduction and the final determination of char¬
acters receives some direct support, and there is good evidence that a further
application of this technique will bring more support.

One of the difficulties implicit in applying the tracer technique to a
biological problem such as the one discussed above has already been pointed
out. It was seen that the phosphate turnover may be active in all phos¬
phate compounds under certain conditions in the case of yeast. When this
is so, no conclusion can be drawn concerning the unique activity of a spe¬
cific phosphate compound. Another significant difficulty arises in the
chemical isolation of compounds, particularly compounds such as the nucleic
acids. In yeast it is, for example, difficult to separate the two acids quanti¬
tatively, and since there is considerably more ribonucleic acid than desoxyri¬
bonucleic acid in the yeast cell a slight contamination of the latter with
the former will give results which may lead to erroneous conclusions con¬
cerning the relative activities of these two compounds.

It can be seen from the examples and discussion presented that the
application of tracers to various biological problems, such as problems aris¬
ing in genetics, is capable of producing valuable results.

THE USE OF TRACERS IN THE FIELD OF MEDICINE
Allen F. Reid

Southwestern Medical College
Dallas, Texas

I have been very fortunate in having a large portion of my subject
given for me by the previous speakers, because the field of medicine em¬
braces the application of most of the chemical and biological sciences, not
merely as additional tools, but as part and parcel of medical work itself.
You can immediately see how the uses reported by Dr. Wagner and Dr.
Nowinski are directly applicable, and you can see the extensions of the
same type of work which could be and are, to a certain extent, used in the
field of medicine. So I should like to spend a little time in pointing out

110

The Texas Journal of Science

some of the differences in techniques and precautions over and above those
used in biochemical and biological applications of tracers when they are
used in medical work. Some of these precautions, it is true, must be taken
in the other fields to a certain degree, but their use in medicine is impera¬
tive to protect the safety of the individual.

PRECAUTIONS

In the first place, many medical operations become more involved by
the necessity of using sterile techniques in their application. Another con¬
cern, when using radioactive tracers, is to use as small doses as is compatible
with the proper functioning of the tracer experiment. Some of you may
well wonder why, as long as the tracer dose is kept low enough so that the
radiation given is less than the accepted permissible level. The answer to
that is simple: it has not yet been established that the body can completely
recover, in time, from the effects of small amounts of radiation. That means
that it may be subjected to some cumulative efferts of radiation from radio¬
active tracer materials. In fact, some investigators have shown what they
believe to be pretty good evidence that even permissible level radiation
dosage will cause pathological change.

Another precaution which must be taken in the use of radioactive
tracers in medicine is the high criterion of radioactive purity. In tracing
biochemical reactions outside the human body, some concern is necessary
about other radioactive materials which might be present. But in the case
of the use of these materials for medical application, even one millionth
of the tracer dose radioactivity, of the wrong element might concentrate
itself in some organ and become the site of irritation and possibly subse¬
quent neoplastic growth.

Now I should like to divide the use of tracers in medicine into two
main classifications — distribution tracers and function tracers. I should like
to give you a few examples — of which there are very many — in each
category.

DISTRIBUTION TRACERS

If a radioactive tracer is introduced into the blood stream its appear¬
ance can be detected wherever the blood flows. That is one of the most
simple and yet fairly important means of determining blood distribution
and blood circulation kinetics. It has been used in some centers, already, as
a diagnostic aid for certain conditions; and of course, as these tracer tech¬
niques are a comparatively recent addition, they can be expected to develop
much further in this as in other related problems. A slight modification
of that is in determining the fluid volume of the individual. This can be
done by using a sampling technique, in which either a stable or a radio¬
active material may be introduced, a sample taken and analyzed. Heavy
water has been used very successfully, and non-concentrating ions such as
radioactive sodium ions can also be used because of their great ionic ac¬
tivity. Permeability of membranes to any molecule or ion can be deter¬
mined merely by introducing such a molecule with an isotopic label on one
side of the membrane and analyzing the material on the other side. One of
the most evident problems to be solved by the isotopic tracer technique is
the determination of blood volume. Until isotopic techniques were avail¬
able, dyes of various kinds were introduced into the blood stream and their

Tracers in the Field of Medicine

111

dilution measured after the dye had assumedly been completely and uni¬
formly distributed. That suffered from the disadvantage that in its passage
through the various organs and through blood vessels contiguous to the
tissues any non-toxic dye is absorbed or chemically changed. However, if
red blood cells are stably labeled such a situation will not exist, and it is
possible to determine the dilution which such cells have experienced. It has
been found that by incubating red cells in a physiological saline solution
containing radioactive phosphorus for a short length of time, enough radio¬
phosphorus will have exchanged with the phosphorus in the cell so as to
make a satisfactory red cell tracer in which loss of the radiophosphorus is
not too rapid when the cells are in the blood stream.

FUNCTION TRACERS

Function tracers, of course, include all of the biochemical tracer appli¬
cations, but only a comparatively few of them have become useful as stand¬
ard practice in the body. One of the best known function tracers is radio¬
active iodine, which collects preferentially in the thyroid tissues. The rate
of uptake of iodine by these tissues has been used as a diagnostic measure,
and in a few rare cases has been used to determine the distribution of thyroid
cancer metastases. Another similar type of function tracer is the labeled
dye which concentrates in lesions. A particular example of that is the use
of dibrom trypan blue labeled with radioactive bromine, which has been
used by many laboratories throughout the country. A slightly different type
of function tracer is radioactive phosphorus in its use to determine the rate
of metabolism of various cells. Since the metabolic rate in some forms of
cancer towards utilization of phosphorus is greater, it is possible to differen¬
tiate between these malignant cells and normally functioning cells by their
uptake of radioactive phosphorus. Finally, I want to use as an example the
determination of the life of red blood cells using an isotopic tracer. This
seems a simple problem. First you label the red cell, and then from time
to time you determine what percentage of the labeled red cells still exist.
Radioactive iron immediately leaps to the mind as being a good tag for the
cell. But there we run into this involvement: upon destruction of the red
cell the released iron is re-utilized in synthesis of a new cell. That, however,
is not true of radioactive phosphorus. But even though radioactive phos¬
phorus can be used to tag the red cell, its life compared to the life of the
red cell is so short that a tremendous activity would have to be used. Fur¬
thermore, we do not have enough evidence to show that the phosphorus
would remain in the cell throughout its entire life. Upon going over one
possibility after another, we find that there is no available radioactive isotope
which can be used to label red cells satisfactorily for this determination.
It becomes necessary to use the stable isotope of nitrogen, allow red cell
synthesis with nitrogen-labeled glycine, and then determine the surviving
N15- labeled red cells from time to time.

One of the medical uses of isotopic tracers which is still in its infancy
is a combination of the distribution and the function tracer technique in
radioautography. An example of that is in the use of radioactive iodine,
which "stains53 thyroid tissue in the portions of the iodine-metabolizing
tissue and not in the other portions. When such tissue is placed near to a
photographic emulsion one then has a radiomicroautograph of the tissue,
which has proved to be of use and extreme interest to pathologists and

112

The Texas Journal of Science

other scientists concerned with the differential functioning of the tissue.
You can see how such a method can be extended to possibly as great a
region as there is at present in conventional staining differentiation.

There is a further possibility of utilizing isotopes which preferentially
absorb neutrons, using a neutron beam as x-rays are used conventionally to
give a diagnostic picture. This may be impractical, but if practical it might
be extended to therapy, also.

It can be seen that there are many channels through which isotopic
tracers may be used in medical science. I have not even mentioned the
many research projects which probably will be the most valuable applica¬
tion of these tracers. I should like to leave you with the thought of a not so
far-fetched but a fantastic appealing method. That is the taking of an
isotopic pill and the subsequent analysis of certain of the body fluids for
the isotopic content of certain compounds as a routine diagnostic proced¬
ure. Some of the foremost investigators in these fields say that there is a
distinct possibility that such a time is coming. As a matter of fact, the
determination of the life of a red cell using labeled glycine is very close to
one example of that.

LIQUID HELIUM THE FOURTH STATE OF MATTER
C. F. Squire

Assistant Professor of Physics
The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

Texas produces for the world of science and industry a unique product
in gaseous helium. The U. S. Bureau of Mines operates a plant at Amarillo
for the separation of the gas. In submitting this article to the Texas Acad¬
emy, we aim to tell of the amazing properties of the gas when cooled to a
liquid at 457 degrees below zero Fahrenheit (minus 269 degrees Centigrade).
Some of the research has been done by us here in Texas, but by far the
greater portion of the story is pieced together from research laboratories
spread throughout the world. Such laboratories as Leiden (Holland), Paris
(France), Cambridge (England), and Moscow (Russia) are but a few of
the important ones who have drawn the helium gas from the Texas gas
fields. And the outgrowth of some twenty years of intensive research has
brought one international agreement (among scientists) ; the liquid helium
is so unlike all other liquids known to man that it must be set in a separate
category and called the fourth state of matter. So we have now: (1) gas,
(2) liquid, (3) solid, (4) liquid helium.

The techniques of obtaining such low temperatures as to permit the
liquefaction of helium gas is itself a story of consuming interest to engineers
and scientists. But we will set this aside in order to cover at once the prop¬
erties of liquid helium. The phase diagram giving a plot of pressure against
temperature (Figure 1) reveals some interesting experimental facts. The
most startling is that the helium remains a liquid on down in temperature
to the absolute 0° K. Only by applying a pressure of some 2 5 to 30 atmos¬
pheres can one obtain the solid phase; thus one has to force the liquid into
the solid state.

Liquid Helium the Fourth State of Matter

113

Fig. 1

Again examining the phase diagram (Figurel) we see that there are
two kinds of liquid called I and II. It is liquid helium II which is the
fourth state of matter. A plot of the specific heat against the temperature
(Figure 2) shows a large hump at the transition temperature separating
the two liquid phases. Such a specific heat hump is found in many sub¬
stances where so-called "second order” transitions take place. One can
compute the entropy change involved in the transition from liquid II to

liquid I by simply integrating the specific heat curve. The rapid drop of
entropy below the transition point tells us that the helium is attempting
some sort of ordering process but that this is not an ordering ino a solid
crystal phase. At pressures corresponding to its own vapor pressure the

114 The Texas Journal of Science

helium definitely stays a liquid. So the ordering process on going from liquid
I to liquid II has been attributed to an ordering in momentum space rather
than in distance space. This peculiar condensation of the helium atoms in
momentum space was actually predicted by Professor Albert Einstein 3 years
before its discovery experimentally. Einstein’s ideas were taken up again by
Prof. F. London,* 2 and the essential point which one must grasp is that
the helium atoms obey quantum mechanisms even on a macroscopic scale.

There are a few other physical properties of liquid helium II which
deserve our attention and which serve to emphasize the difference between
this liquid and all other liquids known. In Figure 3 we plot the coefficient

of viscosity against the absolute temperature. At temperatures below about
1.5° K the liquid has almost zero viscosity! In addition to this, experiments
show that liquid helium II is bv far the best heat conducting substance we
know; it is about 200 times that of copper at ordinary temperatures and
about 14 times that of very pure copper at liquid hydrogen temperatures.
Out of a theory to explain these effects of the quantum liquid there came
a prediction by L. Tisza 3 of the existence of temperature waves (some¬
times called second sound) . Heat energy can be propagated in liquid
helium II by a wave mechanism having a velocity of propagation of about
20 meters per second. The prediction was quantitatively verified by the
experiments of Peshkov in Russia and later by Lane 4 at Yale University.

Returning to the plot of viscosity in Figure 3, we notice that even in
liquid helium I the dependence on temperature is most unusual. All other
liquids show an increase of viscosity with lowering temperature. We must
conclude that even liquid helium I has unusual properties and that it be¬
haves more like a gas than it does a genuine liquid. As a matter of fact,
the density of liquid helium I turns out to be less than one might expect
from the size of the atoms. This small density and the small latent heat

7A. Einstein. S.-B. preuss. Akad. Berlin, 261, 1924; 3, 1925.

2 F. London. Phys. Society Cambridge, p. 1, 1947; Phys. Rev. 54: 947 (1938)

3 L. Tisza. J. Phys. Radium Is 164, 350 (1940) ; C. R. Acad. Sci. 207: 1035* 1186 (1938)

4 Lane, et al. Phys. Rev. 70: 431 (1946)

Indium-Chromium Film Behavior

115

of vaporization have contributed further experimental evidence of the
quantum mechanical nature of macroscopic quantities of helium.

Recently the isotope of helium with mass 3 has been obtained in con¬
siderable quantity as a by-product from the nuclear fission piles set up by
the Atomic Energy Commission. The isotope of mass 3 shows gross physi¬
cal properties which are quite different from the ordinary mass 4 helium
atoms. These experiments bring us up to date with the present state of
affairs and their interpretation promises to throw much light on our basic
understanding of matter. Thus a basic raw material from Texas has played
an important and interesting role in the role of science. At the Rice Insti¬
tute in Houston, there exists a laboratory for the cooling of helium into
the liquid state, and it is with considerable pride that we offer our modest
contributions to the field of low temperature research.

INDIUM-CHROMIUM FILM BEHAVIOR AS REVEALED BY THE
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

Leland L. Antes

Bureau of Engineering Research
The University of Texas

introduction

The properties of electro-plated chromium are quite generally known.
There are certain characteristics of chromium plate which make it very satis¬
factory as a decorative material, but as a protector of iron or steel surfaces
it is very poor. This failure to protect may be attributed to the formation
of microscopic cracks in brittle electro-plated chromium.

These cracks in chromium plate are due to tremendous tensions built
up parallel to the surface as the thickness increases. This can be readily
shown by dissolving the base copper away from a thin electro-deposited layer
of chromium. Under this condition the thin chromiufn curls immediately
into tight cylinders having a diameter of perhaps .01 inch. Assuming that
the thickness of the plate is in the neighborhood of .000 5 inch it will be evi¬
dent that the stress in the uncurled chromium plate must have been very
high.

In the investigation of electro-plated chromium by electron diffraction
it has been found by Donald Marshall and the author (1948) that the first
layer of chromium deposited on a copper surface gives no indication of crys¬
talline structure. As the thickness of this electro-deposited layer is increased,
there is evidence of increasing crystal size and a very strong tendency for
crystal orientation with the 111 crystal surface parallel to the base. A theory
for the development of this tension as the thickness increases would seem
necessarily to involve the increasing size or preferred orientation of the
crystallites, and any means of inhibiting the growth and preferred orienta¬
tion of the chromium crystallites should reduce the formation of surface
stresses.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Investigations of metallic thin layer phenomena have been undertaken
with the help of the electron microscope and a high vacuum apparatus for

116

The Texas Journal of Science

producing thin specimens of a type quite suitable for electron microscope
and electron diffraction work. The similarities between such vacuum de¬
posited layers and those electrolytically deposited are marked.

Indium metal has an unusual crystalline structure. It is essentially a
face centered cube with the cube elongated eight per cent in one direction.
Films of indium which have been deposited by condensation in vacuum
show the effect of relatively high surface tension as evidenced by the elec¬
tron micrograph of Figure 1. Molecular rays released by heating indium in
contact with a tungsten filament travel radially until they strike a cool
surface, such as a microgrope specimen slide. The surface tension of indium
is high compared to that of the parlodion surface on which the molecules
impinge and the indium molecules then migrate to build up the patchwork
structure shown. Examination of this thin indium film by electron diffrac¬
tion indicates that a very high preferential orientation exists.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Films of chromium made by this same vacuum technique show fine
crystalline structure with minute cracks developing somewhat as in the
electro-deposited films. The electron diffraction patterns made from these
thin chromium films show no preferred orientation but do indicate again,
by the unsharpness of the rings, a fine crystalline structure. As the thick¬
ness of the layer increases, the sharpness of the rings increases, indicating
larger crystallites.

When chromium and indium are deposited simultaneously by the
vacuum technique it is found that the crystal structure of the chromium
can be partially destroyed, or at least the size of the crystals can be reduced
to a minimum. This is perhaps due to the odd crystalline structure of in¬
dium. There is also evidence for the formation of a chrome-indium alloy.
This is illustrated in the diffraction pattern of Figure 2 in the form of
additional rings on either side of the strong ring which represent neither
chromium nor indium.

When a thin layer of indium is deposited first and this is followed by
chromium or chromium with indium, electron micrographs of the multi¬
layer thus built up will show mainly the characteristic indium design. The
diffraction patterns of such multi-layers show a variety of effects, but in¬
dicate essentially that the chromium crystalline structure can be de-em-
phasized by the inclusion of the indium. The typical indium structure alone
is indicated by electron diffraction unless the percentage of indium is less
than approximately 50 per cent. An electron micrograph of such a layer,

Effect of Bacteria on Limestone Cores

117

high in indium content, shows the indium in large, irregular patches. An
edge view of this layer indicates that the indium builds up on the parlodion
surface in smoothly rounded droplets. If the percentage of indium is reduced
below about 5 per cent, the chromium diffraction pattern is not seriously
affected, but indium in the ratio of about 10 per cent, and under proper
conditions of deposition, prevents the formation of any but the smallest
chromium crystallites. The electron microscope structure of these chrome-
indium films is always very smooth. Cracks do not develop, nor is there
any tendency for a relatively thick metallic layer to destroy the parlodion
film by curling and breaking as is always the case with pure chromium
deposits.

In conclusion it may be said that vacumm deposited chrome-indium
films in which the indium content is approximately ten per cent possess
properties having considerable advantage, in that the internal stresses par¬
allel to the surfaces of the films seem to be greatly reduced. This quality is
apparently due to a reduction in crystal growth as thickness increases,
perhaps stemming from the unusual crystalline characterics of indium. Pres¬
ervation of these qualities in electroplated layers would be of advantage,
and investigations along these lines are being carried out.

The author wishes to express genuine appreciation for the assistance
of Dr. Norman Hackerman of the Department of Chemistry. Dr. Hacker-
man also furnished the rare metal indium.

LITERATUTE CITED

Hackerman, N. and Marshall, D. I. — 1948 — Passivity of Chromium. Jour. Electro-Chemical
Soc. 93 : 49.

THE EFFECT OF THE BACTERIA VIBRIO DESULFURICANS ON
THE PERMEABILITY OF LIMESTONE CORES

Oliver D. O’Bryan
Sun Oil Company

Ta-Wei David Ling
Department of Petroleum ngineering
University of Texas
Austin

PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATION

Luling crude is produced from the Edwards limestone. There are numer¬
ous kinds of oilfield bacteria in water produced from the same formation.
Bastin (1930) has proved negatively that the bacteria in oilfield waters
come from the oil-producing formations. Plummer (1946) shows that "four
types of organisms are present in oilfield waters and appear to play a prin¬
cipal part in producing harmful precipitates; that is, iron bacteria, sulphur-
oxidizing bacteria, sulphate-reducing bacteria, and blue-green algae.”

The water phase of the reservoir fluids is usually in contact with the
reservoir rock and is said to wet the rock surface (Leverett, 1941). The
above mentioned bacteria exist in the water phase of the reservoir fluids;
therefore there is the possibility of the precipitation of solids due to bacterial
action and the deposition of these solids on the walls of the pore space.

118

The Texas Journal of Science

Such deposition reduces the size of the pore space. Any solid precipitation
from the salt water of the oil-producing formation will not change the
porosity of the reservoir rock appreciably but may decrease the permeabil¬
ity of reservoir rock notably (Ling, 1948).

This theoretical reasoning should be confirmed by laboratory experi¬
ments. The Edwards limestone, then, was chosen as the porous medium. The
bacteria Vibrio desulfuricians were used for there was sulphate in the Luling
oilfield water subject to reduction by these bacteria. Synthetic water was
prepared and used according to the average analysis of the Luling water.

REACTION OF THE BACTERIA VIBRIO DESULFURICANS WITH SULPHATE

IN WATER ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCING FORMATIONS

The bacteria Vibrio desulfuricans are known as sulphate reducing bac¬
teria. The effect of these bacteria is to reduce the valence of sulphur from
plus six, in sulphate, to minus two, in hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide
thus formed will react with metallic ions in the water solution of salts to
form sulphide precipitates. Any excess of hydrogen sulphide causes the
crude in the reservoir to be designated as sour.

For instance, the reduction process of magnesium sulphate by the
bacteria in the presence of hydrocarbons may be expressed by the following
equations:

MgS04 +2 HOH^=± Mg(0H)2 + H2S04
H2S04 2 H + + S04“

S04“ - — - - ' '■ ■ > H2S + 4 H20

Reduction by Bacteria in the
presence of Hydrocarbons
Mg(OH)„ — Z^Mg + + + 2 OH-

Mg++ + H2S - -* MgS^ + 2 h|

2 H+ + 2 OH" - ► 2 HOH or 2 H20

The rate of reduction of the sulphate by bacteria in water solutions is
described by Plummer and Walling (1946):

Analyses show that at 125° F. bacteria alone reduce sulphates in East Texas salt
water by only 3 per cent in 30 days, forming principally hydrogen sulphide and
sodium or calcium hydroxide. The hydrogen sulphide reacts with soluble iron
compounds to produce iron sulphide where oxygen and air are present. Where
iron or other metals and iron sulphide are already in water containing bacteria
100 per cent reduction of the sulphates is complete in 30 days or less ; where
magnesium is present, reduction is complete in 15 days.

The synthetic Luling water contains magnesium and calcium, the
combined reaction of which is similar to that of magnesium alone. The
reduction of sulphate in the synthetic Luling water should be completed
theoretically in about 1 5 days.

PROCEDURE

Eight cores were cut from a piece of the Edwards limestone. The per¬
meability of each individual core was measured. Four cores were treated
differently for the injection of the bacteria. The other four, treated under
individual conditions similar to the cores injected, served as controls in
order to obtain some means of correction of errors from sources other than
the effect of the bacteria. After a period of four months following the in-

Effect of Bacteria on Limestone Cores 119

jection process, the cores were cleaned and the permeability of each core was
then remeasured.

The results were tabulated and compared.

Details of the procedures are described as follows:

PREPARATION OF THE CORE

Eight cores were cut from a piece of the Edwards limestone obtained
at its outcrop; and turned to uniform diameters of seven centimeters. They
were then sawed to a length of seven centimeters, faced, and bored to IT
cm. The final core was a 7 cm by 7 cm cylinder with a bore of 1.1 cm.

Intermittent sterilization was employed to sterilize the cores. The cores
were covered with the synthetic Luling water * and heated to 200° F. for
a period of 18 hours, and allowed to stay in the synthetic water for 72
hours at room temperature. This process was repeated three times. This
precaution was not made for the purpose of obtaining sterilized cores but
for killing off any anaerobes that might be present. Air contaminants were
not considered detrimental.

After sterilization the cores were mounted axially between sheet-iron
discs with De Khotinsky hard cement; the top disc was bored to receive an
11 -mm glass tubing 2 5 cm in length, which was fixed thereto by sealing
wax (see Figure 1).

The cores were dried by passing dry air through them for twelve hours.

Plguj-w l. S*»ro®abillif N®a*uf*»®nt Apparatus Arranged for RadUl Plow.

DETERMINATION OF CORE PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENT

The permeability of each core was measured as specified in the Ameri¬
can Petroleum Institute Code No. 27 (1942). The apparatus is shown in
Figure 1. The pressure of the air admitted to the system was properly regu¬
lated and was indicated by the 100-inch mercury manometer, before the
air enters the air drier. Dry air of a known pressure was forced to flow
through the core radially from inside-out under the measured pressure
gradient. Air which had passed the core was trapped by the bell and the
mercury seal, directed to flow through the wet test meter, and vented to
the atmosphere.

Before the test, the wet test meter was proved against a "precision”
one-tenth-cubic-foot bottle, certified by the U. S. Bureau of Standards. The
accuracy of the meter was within one half of one per cent.

The time required for one- tenth cubic foot of air (measured at room
conditions) to flow through the core, as well as the manometer reading,
the barometric reading, the room temperature, and the dimensions of the
core, were observed and recorded.

* Analysis of the synthetic Luling water is given in the Appendix.

120

The Texas Journal of Science

CALCULATION

Calculations involved the application of Darcy’s formula which was
modified for the radial flow of gases:

Z Qb Pb In (re/rw)

M t (Pe2-Pw2)

Where, k = permeability of the porous medium in darcys,

Z = viscosity of the flowing gas in centipoises,

Qb = rate of flow of gas at the base pressure expressed in milliliters
per second,

Pb — base pressure in atmospheres,

7t = 3.1416,

t = height of the cylindrical core in cm,
r - - radius in cm,

P = pressure in atmospheres,

Subscript e denotes up-stream conditions,

Subscript w denotes down-stream conditions,

In denotes natural logarithms, and
The rate of flow fj^om outside toward the bore
is considered to be of positive sign.

With the amount of flow determined the rate of flow can be calculated.
The barometric reading after correction may be converted to atmospheres
and used as the down-stream pressure. The sum of the down-stream pressure
and the manometer reading, expressed in atmospheres, is equal to the up¬
stream pressure. At a known temperature, the viscosity of the flowing gas
may be obtained from tables.

A part of the data of the permeability determination is shown in Table
3. The permeability k was obtained graphically as shown in Figure 2.

... /

t

.

~-ri

t .

--4

4

§§

m

(i .

'■‘i 3 5

~ YJ. n

lii

1 jg \

Ip

:i x i

- • \i

v

rin

£r

igtf

Ji

m

/

> f

£ 3 ji

i

il

s A

L .

i: H3 ::

•i

A

•r~-

Isfi

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Effect of Bacteria on Limestone Cores

121

PREPARATION AND INJECTION OF THE BACTERIA VIBRIO DESULFURICANS

As noted previously bacteria Vibrio destdfuricans were cultured in the
synthetic Luling water. The necessary hydrocarbons for feeding the bacteria
were furnished by sodium lactate * (one gram per gallon). Anaerobic con¬
ditions were developed and maintained in gallon jugs stoppered with three-
hole rubber stoppers. A long glass tube filled with oil was inserted through
one of the holes to provide a seal and at the same time allow for expansion
and contraction. The remaining two holes of the stopper were plugged with
paraffin and were used in extracting the culture under anaerobic conditions
(Figure 5 ) .

On August 18, 1947, the bacteria had grown 60 days in the new cul¬
ture. At that time a representative sample was prepared and the density of
growth measured in a phototurbidometer. The population was found to be
4,500,000 bacteria per milliliter. The pH, also measured at that time, was
found to be 6.64 (a decrease of 0.56 from the initial pH of 7.20 of the
synthetic Luling water) . These conditions were considered to be favorable
and suitable for this type of injection.

Plgur* 5. Tran»f*r of Bactarla Oul'tur* undar Anaaroblo
Condi tlona.

SATURATION OF TFIE CORES

Cores should be saturated with liquids before the injection of the cul¬
ture, in order to maintain anaerobic conditions and to simulate reservoir
fluid saturations. The dried and weighed core (Figure 3, C) was sealed in
the pressure vessel (Figure 3, D) and evaculated through the bore to an ab¬
solute pressure of 2 mm Hg. The vacuum sump (Figure 3, E) was evacu¬
ated by the vacuum pump (Figure 3, F) and was used to trap any liquid
passing through the core. While maintaining this vacuum, synthetic Luling
water was added to the pressure vessel gradually by opening the valve be¬
tween (B) and (D) slowly and by applying air pressure (A) finally up to

* Sodium lactate (NaCsHsCs) is available as a mixture with water containing 70-80%
sodium lactate, which is a colorless or almost colorless, thick, odorless liquid. The solution
is neutral and miscible with water or alcohol or both.

Table 1. Water and Oil Saturation Data.

122

The Texas Journal of Science

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Specific gravity of brine: 1.0209
Specific gravity of oil : 0.8446

Effect of Bacteria on Limestone Cores

123

one atmosphere gauge. After saturation, which took at least one-half hour,
the core was removed and weighed.

The core was then returned to the pressure vessel and, with the ap¬
paratus modified as shown in Figure 4, covered with crude oil before start¬
ing evacuation. Evacuation was necessary to saturate the core with oil. In
oil-saturating the core, compressed air was used to displace the brine (Figure
4, B) , which, in turn, forced the crude oil (Figure 4, C) into the pressure
vessel, in order to fill up the remaining pore space of the core (Figure 4, D)
with the crude oil or to displace a portion of the brine in the large pores.
By so doing, the hazard of the explosive mixture of the lighter portion of
crude and the air was eliminated. The core was then removed and weighed.

Cores were treated differently. Four cores (A, B, 1, and 2 in Table 1)
were "'water-wet and oil-saturated” in the described manner. Two (C and
3) were saturated with a 20% water solution of sodium lactate. Two (D
and 4) were saturated by brine. Cores 1, 2, 3, and 4 were subjected to 100
ml of the Vibrio desulfuricans culture under the hydrostatic head of from
4 to 1 1 inches of water for the slow migration of the bacteria across the
core. The other set of the cores (A, B, C, and D) were used as controls and
were subjected to a similar migration of the synthetic Luling brine. If the
hydrostatic head proved to be too great, a clamp or stopper permitted regu¬
lation of the rate of flow.

INJECTION OF THE CULTURE

As anaerobic conditions were necessary at all times, the introduction
of the Vibrio desulfuricam culture to the cores was not a simple procedure.
The injection was accomplished with the aid of a nitrogen generator in the
following manner:

A 60-inch length of 1 1 -mm glass tubing (Figure 5, H) was con¬
nected to the core assembly (F) by means of a short length of Tygon
tubing, as shown in Figure 5 by dotted lines. In Figure 5, the core assem¬
bly was resting on a funnel, which collected the liquids displaced from the
core and permitted them to drop into a graduated cylinder (G). Nitrogen
was generated in the nitrogen generator (A), and then the nitrogen was
washed by a solution in the basic washer (B) and then by water in the
neutral washer (C) . The nitrogen was then used to force the culture out of
the jug (D).

A 2 5 -ml pipette was filled with crude oil and used to punch one of the
paraffin plugs in the jug containing the culture. The top of the pipette
was connected to the lower end of the Tygen tubing. After the generator
was in operation for sufficient time to purge the lines, the last washer was
connected to the top of the culture by punching out the other paraffin
plug. The nitrogen forced the culture out of the jug through the pipette,
with the oil seal ahead of the culture, and into the 11 -mm glass tubing
(H). The oil floated on the culture and thus sealed the latter from the
oxygen in the air. When the tube was filled to a desired height, the flow
of nitrogen into the jug was stopped. The height was calculated by divid¬
ing the cross-sectional area of the opening of 11 -mm tubing into the vol¬
ume of the culture required which included an extra amount for undeter¬
mined losses.

The Tygon tubing was then clamped % of an inch from its lower
end, disconnected from the jug, and placed on the top of the short glass

124

The Texas Journal of Science

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Table 3. Data on Permeability Determination after Injection of the Bacteria*

Effect of Bacteria on Limestone Cores

125

tube connecting the bore of the core and the outside of the core. The
short glass tube was filled with oil before making any connection. A small
portion of the culture was permitted to flow downwards by "cracking”
the clamp slightly. The air trapped in the Tygon tubing below the clamp
was thereby expelled. The tubing was then pulled down over the short glass
tubing to form a good seal.

Brine was introduced into the control cores in a very simple way, since
it was unnecessary to maintain anerobic conditions during the process. The
glass tubing (H) was filled with the synthetic Luling water and was then
connected to the core assembly.

The culture was introduced to the cores on August 23, 1947; the rate
of migration of the culture as well as that of the brine was regulated by
manipulating the clamp on the short length of Tygon tubing. The culture
remained in the cores for four months.

EXTRACTION OF THE CORE AFTER INJECTION

In the middle of December, 1947, the cores were cleaned by a suitable
method. The crude oil in the pore space was removed by the process of
solution of the crude in clean oil solvent, diffusion of the solvent in the
pore space, and displacement of the used solvent in the pore space by clean
solvent. The process was repeated. After drying in a vacuum oven, any
salt deposited in the pore space was removed by a similiar method except
that fresh boiled distilled water was used to replace the oil solvent. The
core was dried before its permeability was measured again.

MEASUREMENT OF THE PERMEABILITY OF THE RECLEANED CORES

The permeability of each of the recleaned cores was measured in a
radial-flow cell with the air as the flowing fluid. The flow was from inside
out radially under pressure gradient ranges similar to those used for the
determination of permeability before the introduction of the bacteria. The
data were calculated and plotted for the determination of the permeability
as before.

Table 4. Summary of the Results of Permeability Determinations.

Core

Perm., darcys
Before Treat.

Perm., darcys
After Treat.

Change in
Perm., %

Net Change
in Perm., %

A

0.00207

0.00274

4- 32.4

B

0.00605

0.00643

+ 6.28

C

0.00230

0.00230

0.00

D

0.001583

0.001766

+ 11.56

1

0.00566

0.00650

-b 14.82

- 17.6

2

0.00571

0.00598

+ 4.72

- 1.54

3

0.006384

0.00603

- 5.55

- 5.55

4

0.005378

0.005075

- 5.64

- 17.2

Where, A, B, C, and D are control cores; while 1, 2, 3, and 4 are four
cores to which the bacteria were introduced.

A, B, 1, and 2 were "water wetted and oil saturated”; C and 3 were sat¬
urated with 20% water solution of sodium lactate; D and 4 were saturated
with brine.

126

The Texas Journal of Science

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

The results of the experiment are summarized in Table 4. The net
change in permeability of the core is calculated with the aid of the follow¬
ing equation:

Cn — Q

c

Where, Cn = the net change in permeability in percentage,

Q = the change in permeability of the core injected with the
bacteria culture in percentage, and
Cc = the change in permeability of the control core in per¬
centage.

The permeability of the cores varied in the order of several millidarcys.
It would be reasonable to assume that the cores were of fairly uniform por¬
osity, but the difference in permeability was thought to be due to the varia¬
tion in size of the capillary channels connecting the pores. With the above
assumption the data may be interpreted as follows:

1. The effect of the bacteria was to reduce the permeability of the
limestone core, since the net change in permeability of the cores injected
was negative.

2. As long as the walls of the pore space were wetted by water the
effect of the bacteria remained similar. Core 1 was completely water wetted,
and Core 4 was saturated with water. They had similar change in perme¬
ability. On the other hand, Core 2 had a much higher oil saturation than
Core 1, and its reduction in permeability was much less than that of Core
1. An explanation of this phenomena might be: the sour crude oil hindered
the action of the bacteria in deposition of sulphides on the walls of capillary
openings as a result of poor water-wall contact or of the detrimental action
of the crude to the health of the bacteria, or of both.

3. Sodium lactate water solution did not have any effect on the change
in permeability of the limestone cores as shown by Core C.

4. Lack of sulphate in. Core 3 might be the reason for its smaller
change in permeability. The culture was prepared in the synthetic Luling
water, but the reduction of sulphate in the culture was complete before
injection, for it took sixty days to prepare the culture. The limited sulphate
for reaction with bacteria was supplied bv the fresh synthetic water only,
injected at the sametime as the culture. Therefore Core 3 had less reduction
in permeability than Cores 1 and 4.

5. Most of the cores had an increase in permeability which may have
resulted from the dissolving action of the water containing carbon dioxide
absorbed from the air.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

The bacteria Vibrio d e sulfuric an s decreases the permeability of limestone
cores in the presence of an ample supply of the food and sulphates, and
under favorable conditions. Future work should be done with attention
paid to the following factors in order to obtain additional substantiating
data concerning the effect of the bacteria on changes in the permeability
of oil-producing formations:

Effect of Bacteria on Limestone Cores

127

1. Anaerobic conditions should be preserved after the introduction of
the culture in order to prevent the air from killing the bacteria, and also
to prevent the carbon dioxide from the air to dissolve in the water as noted
previously.

2. Fairly uniform sandstone cores bonded by siliceous cementing ma¬
terial should be used for the experiment to eliminate the possible acidifica¬
tion of the calcereous material by the dissolved carbon dioxide and water
solution.

3. Sulphate-reducing bacteria other than Vibrio desulfuricans should be
used to prove that the reduction in permeability is due primarily to the ac¬
tion of sulphate-reducing bacteria and the subsequent precipitation of
sulphides.

4. A culture of a combination of several species of bacteria may give
some idea of the combined effect.

5. Extensive work on the environment of the sulphate-reducing bac¬
teria will give new valuable data for future research.

6. This investigation has been carried out under atmospheric pressure
and temperature. Higher pressures and temperatures such as those found in
the reservoirs if used as experimental variables should facilitate the pre¬
diction of the behavior of the bacteria in actual petroleum reservoirs.

7. Research on methods for regulating reservoir conditions to counter¬
act the action of the bacteria is of paramount practical importance.

8. Slippage occurs along the wall of the flow channels when gases are
used as flow media. Therefore, in the determination of core permeability a
suitable liquid should be substituted for the dry air used in this experiment.
The alternative would be to apply the formula derived by Klinkenberg.5
According to his equation, the permeability of the porous medium to gas
is proportional to the reciprocal of the pressure of the gas. More runs should
be performed for air as the flowing fluid in order to obtain enough data
for the graphical solution of his formula for the specific permeability of
porous medium.

9. The region adjacent to the bore of the core might be one of turbu¬
lent flow, even though viscous flow conditions are still maintained in the
region farther away from the bore. In the determination of the perme¬
ability of a sandstone core, the formula derived by Elenbaas and Katz3
should be used in the calculation of the permeability after the determina¬
tion of additional sand data, such as porosity, sphericity, and average par¬
ticle diameter.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writers are indebted to the Texas Academy of Science for its
grant, and to Dr. H. H. Power, chairman, the Petroleum Engineering De¬
partment, the University of Texas, for his close supervision and enthusiastic
encouragement. Helpful assistance is also gratefully acknowledged from
Dr. G. H. Fancher and Dr. J. W. Foster of the University of Texas,
Messrs. R. A. Cattell and C. B. Carpenter of U. S. Bureau of Mines, Dr.
Fraser Allen and Mr. R. A. Morse of Stanolind Oil and Gas Company,
and Dr. H. J. Sawin of the University of Houston.

128

The Texas Journal of Science

appendix

Average Analysis of hiding Wat erg 4

Radical

Calcium

Magnesium

Sodium

Bicarbonate

Sulphate

Chloride

Parts per Million
918
375
3,347
1,048
824
6,582

Total Solids: 13,194

Specific Gravity: 1.00S

pH of the synthetic Luling water: 7.20**

* Average of 21 water samples ; 5 collected in 1923, 8 in 1924, and 8 in 1929.
** Laboratory measurement.

LITERATURE CITED

American Petroleum Institute — 1942 — Standard procedure for determining permeability of
porous media. 2nd. ed. Code 27. Dallas, Texas. Div. of Production A. P. I.

Bastin, E. S. and F. E. Greer — 1930 — Additional data on sulphate-reducing bacteria in soils
and waters of Illinois oil fields. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists 14 : 153-159.

Elenbaas, J. R., and D. L. Katz — 1948 — A radial turbulent flow formula. Amer. Inst. Mining
and Metallurgical Engrs. Tech. Pub. 2304 : 1-13.

Hill, H. B., Bauserman, V. H., and C. B. Carpenter — 1931 — Development and production
history of the salt flat and other fault fields of East Texas. U. S. Bur. Mines Rept. of
Invest. 3059 : 14.

Klinkenberg, L. K. — 1942 — The permeability of porous media to liquids and gases. Amer. Pet.
Inst. Drilling and Production Practice for 1941. Pp. 200-213.

Leverett, M. C. — 1941 — Capillary behavior in porous solids. Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining and
Metallurgical Engrs. 142 : 152-169.

Ling, T. W. D. — 1948 — Unpublished report to Dr. G. H. Fancher.

Plummer, F. B., Merkt, E. E., Jr., Power, H. H., Sawin, H. J., and P. Tapp — 1943 — Effects
of certain micro-organisms on the injection of water into sand, Amer. Inst. Miining and
Metallurgical Engrs. Tech. Pub. 1678: 1-13,

Plummer, F. B. and I. W. Walling — 1946 — Laboratory investigations of chemical changes in
East Texas oil-field water affecting its injection into subsurface sands, Trans, Amer,
Inst. Mining and Metallurgical Engrs. 165: 64-77.

ULTRASONIC VELOCITY IN BERYLLIUM AT VERY
LOW TEMPERATURES

W. C. Overton, Jr.

The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

A recent development, "the ultrasonic pulse technique,” provides an
accurate experimental means for measuring the velocity of sound in solid,
liquid and gaseous media. This technique involves the use of a pulsed radio
frequency oscillator, a broad-band radio receiver, a radar type oscilloscope
for accurately measuring time differences between pulses and a quartz elec¬
tromechanical transducer.

The function of these components is as follows (Fig. 1). The oscillo¬
scope, a DuMont Type AR-2 56-D Radar Range Scope, has a crystal-con¬
trolled timing circuit which starts the time base and simultaneously sends
a trigger pulse to the oscillator circuit. The radio frequency pulse formed
by this oscillator is amplified and then passes through an impedance match-

Ultrasonic Velocity in Beryllium

129

AR-256-D

Radar Range
Oscilloscope

/

, Trigger
Output

Pulsed

R.F.

Oscillator

Broad

hand

Receiver

\

\

/

f

f J /

<

Matching

Network

Attenuator

V

/

' 1 Quartz

s Crystal

Solid

Sample

Fig. 2

Fig. 1

ing network to the quartz electromechanical transducer. The r.f. pulse is
transformed by the transducer into a sound pulse which travels into the
medium.

If the medium is a solid the end faces are made parallel, so that when
the sound wave strikes the face opposite the transducer it is reflected. After
a round-trip through the solid the sound pulse strikes the transducer caus¬
ing it to vibrate mechanically. This transducer then changes the sound
pulse back into an electrical pulse called an '"echo.” The echo then passes
back through the matching network into the receiver where it is amplified
and detected. The envelope of the pulse is then applied to the vertical deflect¬
ing plate of the oscilloscope. If the medium is a liquid or gas then metallic
reflecting surfaces must be placed in the path of the wave normal to the

130

The Texas Journal of Science

direction of propagation. Pellam and Squire (1947) have made successful
measurements of the velocity of compressional waves in liquid helium.
They used a metallic reflecting surface which could be adjusted to the
desired distance which measurements were being made.

The ratio of total distance traveled by the wave to the time differ¬
ence between echoes, as measured with the oscilloscope, gives the velocity.
If the sound attenuation in the medium is small, several echoes will be re¬
ceived and the measured time differences, averaged over the several echoes,
will lead to a precise value for the round trip travel time.

If accurate measurements are to be made using this technique, then
the duration of the r.f. pulse should be small, i.e., of the order from % to
about 4 microseconds. This requires that high radio frequencies be used so
that there will be a sufficient number of r.f. cycles and sufficient energy
in the pulse to produce a detectable signal. The frequencies used are in
the 5 Mc/sec to 100 Mc/sec range. The band width of the receiver must
be broad enough to accommodate the pulse width used. The bandwidth BW

2

is related to the pulse duration by the approximation BW = — , where S is
is in microseconds and BW is in Mc/sec.

It is not practical to use a quartz crystal having a resonance higher
than about 1 5 Me/ sec because the very thin quartz plates resonating above
this frequency are fragile and susceptible to fracture. If it is desired to use
a very high frequency, say 60 Mc/sec, then a 15 Mc/sec crystal driven on
its fourth harmonic may be used as the electromechanical transducer.

If sound measurements are to be made in solids then the quartz plate
should be rigidly bound to the face of the solid. The binding material must
form as thin a layer as possible between the quartz and the solid sample.
Several successful binding agents have been suggested in the literature. For
room temperature measurements Huntington 11947) has successfully used
phenylsalicylate. The solid and the phenylsalicylate should be heated to
about 45 degrees C in an oven and one or two drops of the salicylate
applied to the top face of the solid. The quartz crystal is then properly
centered and held in position by resting a smooth faced weight atop the
quartz until the phenyl-salicylate has cooled and solidified.

The quartz crystals must be plated or sputtered with a thin conduct¬
ing film of gold or silver. This film should be continuous over both faces
and the edges of the quartz. Since the two electrical contacts must be
made on one face of the quartz a thin non-conducting ring must be cut
or etched out of the conducting film. The electrical contacts may be either
press-spring fingers or a concentric spring contact arrangement as shown in
Figure 2.

In the low temperature range from room temperature down to about
130 degrees Kelvin, ordinary stop-cock grease has been used successfully
as a binding agent. Due to the different rates of contraction between the
quartz transducer, the binding agent and the solid, sufficient strains may
set in as the temperature is lowered to break the quartz away from the
solid. When this occurs measurements are no longer possible. If the solid
is a single crystal of the alkali-halide type the strains may become great
enough at low temperature to crack the solid (Galt, 1948).

Ultrasonic Velocities in Beryllium

131

ULTRASONIC VELOCITIES IN METALLIC BERYLLIUM

At the Rice Institute Low Temperature Laboratory measurements of
the velocity of longitudinal waves in beryllium were made from room
temperature down to 23 degrees Kelvin in the helium cryostat. Also pre¬
liminary measurements with transverse waves were made down to 80 de¬
grees Kelvin vdth a stop-cock grease binding agent.

These measurements were made at a frequency of 10 Mc/sec. An
X-cut, % inch diameter, 10 Mc/sec quartz crystal was used as the electro¬
mechanical transducer to produce longitudinal waves. The transverse waves
were produced by a Y-cut quartz.

A plot of the velocity as a function of temperature is given in Figure
3. At zero degrees centigrade the velocity of longitudinal waves came out

\

Longitudinal

wave 8 to 23°K

\

Tmniveree

waves to 80°K

J

0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature Degree* Kelvin

Fig. 3

to be 12,570 meters per second. This corresponds to a wavelength of 0.12 57
cm at the frequency used. Since the investigation in beryllium is being
continued these results are not considered final and it is expected that im¬
provements in accuracy and measurements at still lower temperatures will
be made.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The beryllium sample used in these experiments was not a single crystal
and the grain structure was not known. In general, however, the grain
structure has a negligible effect on the velocity of longitudinal and trans¬
verse waves but does affect the attenuation (Roth, 1948). For the purpose
of computing the elastic moduli the beryllium sample has been assumed to
be homogeneous and isotropic.

The equation for the propagation of a disturbance in a homogeneous

isotropic solid is
(1)

02s

3t2

2(1 + a)

V2s

+

(1 " 2a)

grad div

where s is the vector displacement, f3 is the density, E and cr are respectively

132

The Texas Journal of Science

Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. This equation is independent of co¬
ordinate system.

Since the end faces of the solid sample are flat and the direction of
propagation is normal to these faces it is convenient to use the Cartesian
co-ordinate system. The vector displacement s may then be written in
terms of its x, y, z components.

(2) s = iu T jv T kw

With a plane wave travelling in the x-direction the partial derivatives with
respect to y and z vanish, so that equation ( 1 ) may be written in terms of
the components of the vector displacement.

02u _ E (1 “ or) __ d2u

3x2

(3)

(4)

(0

3t2

02v

3t2

02W

C>t2

( 1 Ter) (l-2o-)

E Q2u

2(1 + ff) 0x2

E 02w
2(l + o-) dx2

The component of the vector displacement s in the x-direction is u,
so that equation (3) is the well known expression for a longitudinal wave
with velocity.

(6)

(7)

V] —

vt

p(ITo-) (1— 2<r)

E(l-cr)

2p(1+Q')

E

V*

The modulus of compression k and the s
and cr by the equations

, E E

/* =

V.

lear modulus /x are related to E

3 ( l-2er) r" 2(1+0-)

so that equations (6) and (7) may be written

(8)

Vj —

k + V;

3 P

(9)

The values of k, /x and Young’s modulus at any temperature may then
be calculated from the measured velocities. Figure 4 shows the variation of
these moduli with the temperature from 270 to 80 degrees Kelvin. The
modulus of compression k is the reciprocal of the adiabatic compressibility
ks. The variation of ks with the temperature is shown in Figure 5.

At 270° the adiabatic compressibility is 1.03 x 10-12 cm2 per dyne.
Bridgman (1927) obtained values for the isothermal compressibility of
beryllium using his piezometer on two different samples. On one sample the
isothermal compressibility was 8.8 5 x 10-13 cm2 per dyne at both 30° C and
75° C. On the other sample it was 9.0 x 10"13 cm2 per dyne. Assuming that

Ultrasonic Velocities in Beryllium

133

Touag'»

Modulus

\

X

Shear

Modulus

Modulus of

Compression

X

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature Degreee Keleln

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

the adiabatic and isothermal compressibilities are approximately equal, these
results differ from Bridgman’s by 10 to 15 percent.

Poisson’s ratio may be obtained by dividing equation (6) by equation
(7) and solving for a. This leads to

Poisson’s ratio is also plotted in Figure 5. Its value is in the neighborhood of
0.01 in this temperature range. This low value results because of the high
relative velocity of the transverse waves and because the ratio of V]2 to Vt2 is
just slightly greater than 2. For most metals Poisson’s ratio is l/3 to l/4,
becoming equal to l/2 at the melting temperature. The Poisson’s ratio must
therefore increase from the low value at 270° K shown in Figure 5 to the
value l/2 between 270° K and 13 50° C. which is the melting point. Further
work on the investigation of beryllium at higher temperatures is planned.

134

The Texas Journal of Science

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author takes this opportunity to thank Mr. R. F. Blunt, Mr. W. F.
Love, and Mr. Nelson Skomal (all of the Rice Institute Low Temperature
Laboratory) without whose assistance the experiments could not have been
performed; and to thank Dr. C. F. Squire, who suggested the problem,
supervised the experiments, and assisted in interpreting the data. This work
was supported by the joint program of the Office of Naval Research and
the Atomic Energy Commission.

LITERATURE CITED

Bridgman, P. W. — 1927 — The compressibility and pressure coefficient of resistance of ten
elements. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts & Sci. 62: 207.

Galt, J. K.— 1948— M'chanical properties of NaCl, KBr and R Cl. Phys. Rev. 73 (12) : 1460.
Huntington, H. B. — 1947 — Ultrasonic measurements on single crystals. Phys. Rev. 72 (4) : 321.
Pellam, J. R. — 1947 — Ultrasonic velocity and absorption in liquid helium. Phys. Rev. 72 (12) :
1245.

Roth, W. — 1948 — Scattering of ultrasonic radiation in polycrystalline metals. J. App. Phy.
19 (10).

THE DISINTEGRATION OF CARBON BY DEUTERONS *

G. C. Phillips
The Rice Institute

A study has been made *at the Rice Institute of the nuclear reactions
occurring when C12 is bombarded by deuterons. The deuterons were accel¬
erated with the Rice Institute Van de Graaff generator of improved reso¬
lution. Carbon targets were prepared by depositing thin layers of ceresin
wax, or by cracking benzene, on silver disks. These targets were made
thinner, for energy loss of deuterons, than the energy width of any of the
observed nuclear levels (resonances).

The reactions studied were

(1)

„C12 + iD2-

-N14

+ lH* 1 2 3 4 — 0.52 Mev
GC13 - » «C13 + y (31 Mev)

(2)

(5C12 + jD2

1

r— (

£

i

— > 7N13 + on1 - .2 82 Mev

7N13 - > 7C13 + e+ + /x + 1.26 Mev.

The gamma rays in reaction (1) have been found to have about 3.1 Mev.
The positron emitting 7N13 accompanying reaction (2) has a half life of
10 minutes.

Reaction (1) was studied by means of the 3.1 Mev, gamma rays. A
Geiger counter was placed beside the target and the number of gamma-rays
per incident deuteron was determined as a function of the bombarding
deuteron energy. Resonance yields were observed at 0.91, 1.16, 1.3 0, 1.43 5
and 1.73 Mev. These resonances had cross sections of 0.215, 0.25 5, 0.293,

* This work was supported by the joint program of the Office of Naval Research and the
Atomic Energy Commission.

1. Bennett, Bonner, Mandeville, and Watt. Phys. Rev. 70: 882 (1946)

2. J. R. Risser. Ms.

3. Bennett, Bonner, Hudspeth, Richards and Watt. Phys. Rev. 59: 781 (1941)

4. Bonner, Evans, and Hill. Unpublished data.

Disintegration of Carbon by Deutrons

135

0.457, and 0.73 5 Barns (10*24 cm2) respectively. These indicate excited
states in the 7*N14 intermediate nucleus at 11.04, 11.2 5, 11.37, 11.49, 11.74
Mev. above the ground state. The measured widths of these levels were 200,
200, 70, 6.3, and 300 kev. It is interesting to note that the 6.3 kev wide
level at 11.49 Mev is the narrowest known deuteron excited level.

Reaction (2) was studied first by means of the positrons from the
7N13. It is to be noted that a positron accompanies each neutron emitted.
Since it was discovered that the neutrons are not spherically symmetrical
about the deuteron beam while the relatively long lived 7N13 will emit
positrons isotropically, the number of positrons emitted into any known
solid angle after ceasing a bombardment gives immediately the total cross
section for the production of neutrons into the whole sphere about the
target. The 7N13 was prepared by bombarding a thin pure carbon target
on a silver foil for two half lives of the 7N13 (20 minutes) and recording
the number of deuterons that struck the target. The target was then re¬
moved from the vacuum system and placed over a thin window Geiger
counter that counted the positrons going into it with almost 100% effici¬
ency. From the known number of carbon atoms/ cm2, the numer of deu¬
terons, the observed counting rate for the positrons at the cessation of the
bombardment, the known solid angle of the Geiger counter, and the decay

-1 600 seconds , , r .

constant \ — — ; - 0 - the total cross section ror neutrons was deter-

l°ge2 • ,

mined. These data were taken as a function of bombarding deuteron’s

energy. Resonances were found at 0.91, 1.16, 1.30, 1.63, and 1.73 with

widths of 200, 200, 70, 15 0, and 70 kev and cross sections at maximum

of 0.08 5, 0.1 10, 0.139, 0.139, and 0.160. It is to be noted that there is no

resonance for reaction (2) corresponding to the narrow gamma-ray reso¬
nance at 1.43 5 Mev. Also it appears that there is no counter part to the
1.73 Mev gamma-ray resonance for the neutrons but rather a level just
to either side of it.

The angular distributions of the neutrons of reaction (2) have been
studied at nine energies: 0.775, 0.891, 0.991, 1.16, 1.20, 1.26, 1.35, 1.55,
and 1.72. These angular distributions were determined by means of a hydro¬
gen-filled proportional counter which was rotated about the beam from
0° to 160° in 15° steps in the laboratory coordinates. The counter subtended
± 12°. The counter system was biased to count no gamma-ray ioniza¬
tion, but only protons recoiling from the fast neutrons and possessing more
than 150 kev. The data so obtained were converted to the center of mass
coordinate system in which the 7::'N14 is at rest and the numbers of neutrons
per deuteron corrected for the variation of the counter efficiency with
neutron energy and for the change in the solid angle subtended at the
target by the counter in the c.m. system. These data showed large asymme¬
tries for the number of neutrons into unit solid angle at the various angles.
In particular for 1.26 Mev deuterons, five times as many neutrons are pro¬
duced at 160° as are produced as 0°. Attempts are being made to fit these
distributions with legendre functions and perhaps learn something of the
angular momentum of the characteristic states of 7*N14. A more complete
presentation of these data and their discussion will be presented in the
Physical Review in the near future.

136

The Texas Journal of Science

THE FLAME PROPAGATION VELOCITIES OF AIR-PROPANE
MIXTURES IN A CONTROLLED TURBULENCE
BUNSEN BURNER1

H. J. Buttner2, F. W. Bowditch3 and W. W. Floyd4
Purdue Research Foundation
Purdue University, W. Lafayette, Indiana

DEFINITION

In this paper the writers follow the recommendation made by a panel of the sub¬
committee on combustion (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) as outlined at
the meetings on The Fundamentals of Combustion at the Applied Physics Laboratory,
John Hopkins University, Silver Spring, Maryland, March 17 and 18, 1947, to the effect
that the rate of progress of the combustion zone of a flame be referred to as the flame
propagation velocity. This term as used herein is, therefore, identical in meaning with the
burning velocity of Lewis and Von Elbe (1943), the transformation velocity of Fiock,
Burke & Grummit (1943) and the normal combustion velocity defined by Jost (1946) as “the
velocity with which the border surface between burned and unburned gases moves, relative
to unburned gas at rest in immediate proximity to the combustion surface.”

LAMINAR FLAME PROPAGATION VELOCITIES

Bunsen (Bone and Townend, 1927) was the pioneer in the determina¬
tion of the speed of flame. His flash-back method, however, was not ac¬
curate. It was Gouy (1879) who made the first refined determinations of
the propagation velocity of a Bunsen type flame. He measured the volume
rate of flow through the port and the area of the cone of flame, dividing
the volume rate of flow of the unburned gases by the area of the cone of
flame to obtain the flame propagation velocity. Many subsequent workers
have used the Gouy procedure or some modification of it to measure propa¬
gation velocities of flames.

Lewis and Von Elbe (1943) found that in a Bunsen flame the propa¬
gation velocity is highest at the rounded tip of the upright cone, decreases
sharply from this tip downward, reaching a constant value which obtains
over almost the entire lateral surface, and drops to zero at the base of
the cone.

Using Mache’s relation (1918),

Pu ~ Pb Ap puSu2 (p»/pb ~ 1)

Von Elbe and Mentser (1945) determined propagation velocities, Su, of
oxyacetylene flames from measured pressures of the unburned gas, pn and
the burned gas, ph, and thermodynamically calculated ratios of the unburned
to the burned gas densities, pv/pb; the values obtained agreed well with those
found from flame cone dimensions.

Lewis (1947), applying the important relation of Mallard and Le
Chatelier for the velocity of a combustion wave in an air-fuel mixture as a
function of the temperature gradient from the burned to the unburned
gas (Mallard and Chatelier, 18 83 ), and making the reasonable approxima¬
tion that the rate of rise of temperature from a point in the gas where igni¬
tion occurs to another point where burning is complete is constant, obtained
the equation

= ( Tb - Ttg •) ( 1 )

cp P ( Tig — Tu ) ( Xb )

(where Su is the propagation velocity; pc the coefficient of heat conductivity;

1 This research was jointly sponsored by the Office of Naval Research and the Bureau of

Aeronautics under Project SQUID.

2 Professor of Automotive Engineering.

3 Research Fellow.

4 Professor of Chemistry.

Flame Propagation Velocities of Air-Propane

137

cp the heat capacity at constant pressure; p the density; Tu the initial, Tig-
the ignition, and Tb the final temperature of the mixture; and xb the thick¬
ness of the burning gas layer between the points of ignition and the complete
burning). All of the quantities in this equation except Tig are measurable
or calculable. The equation makes it possible, therefore, to determine ignition
temperatures from flame propagation velocities and heat conductivity and
capacity data.

TURBULENT FLAME PROPAGATION VELOCITIES

Few data are available concerning the propagation of flames in turbu¬
lent gaseous mixtures. Damkohler (1940) made use of the Guoy method to
determine the flame propagation velocities of propane-oxygen mixtures in
small Bunsen type burners in the range of Reynolds numbers of from 612
to 17,3 00 (referred to the inside diameter of the burner tube). He charac¬
terized a turbulent flame as having two distinguishable, though sometimes
blurred, boundary surfaces of the combustion zone, an inner and an outer
cone, which are relatively far apart. (The combustion zone of a laminar
flame, it will be remembered, is a single, very thin cone, the inner and outer
bounding surfaces of which practically coincide). He designated the inner
cone as the locus of the fastest, the outer of the slowest combustion. He
found the flame propagation velocity measured at the outer cone to equal
that of an identical gaseous mixture flowing laminarly. The propagation
velocity measured at the inner cone was twice that at the outer at a Reynolds
number of 4000, three times the outer at a Reynolds number of 12,000,
and three and one-half times the outer at a Reynolds number of 17,300.
He regarded the ratio of the propagation velocity at the inner to that at
the outer cone as a measure of the effect of the turbulence on the flame
propagation velocity in his burner.

EXPERIMENTATION

The air-propane supply for the burner used in the present work is
shown in Figure 1. Propane from high pressure tanks was passed successively
through two diaphragm control valves in series (for pressure reduction) ,
1150 cubic inches surge tank (for damping fluctuations), a calibrated
rotameter (for rate of flow measurement), a needle valve (for fine adjust¬
ment of rate of flow), and into a mixing chamber, where it was mixed

with air. The air inlet was similar to that for the propane, except that only
one diaphragm valve was used to reduce the air pressure. The propane and
air were mixed in the T-shaped mixing chamber and the mixture conducted
through a final surge chamber to the burner.

138

The Texas Journal of Science

The burner is shown diagramatically in Figure 2. The turbulence
creator was an 0.086 inch diameter rod which was rotated by a small high
speed motor (located beneath the burner) capable of revolving up to 18,000
revolutions per minute at 26 volts. The main body of the burner consisted
of a housing containing two ball bearings for the rotating rod. A conical
shield protected the combustible gaseous mixture from the turbulent eddies
produced by the ball bearings. The burner nozzle, a contracting jet type,
was composed of three main sections, as follows: (a) a vertically adjustable
base, (b) an adapter, and (c) the nozzle proper. By use of the adjustable
base, the burner could be raised or lowered with respect to the rod. The
nozzle was variable as to size and shape.

Attempts were made to determine the dimensions of the combustion
zone using in turn (a) the optical set-up of Garside, Forsyth and Townend
('‘1945), (b) a Fastax motion picture camera equipped with Eastman Super
XX or colored film, and (c) the schlieren system used by van de Poll and
Westerdijk (1941). None of these gave turbulent flame photographs of
sufficient clarity of detail.

For our purpose, simple, direct photography proved to be the most
successful procedure. An Agfa Compur camera, mounted on a vertically
adjustable stand and placed as close as possible to the flame, was used to
make the photographs. The port of the burner was illuminated by an
electric lamp placed on the side of the burner opposite to the camera. All
of the light from the lamp bulb was excluded from the flame under obser¬
vation, only the port of the burner being silhouetted in front of the camera
lens. The camera was placed at such a height that the burner port, so
illuminated, appeared as a horizontal straight line. Agfa Isopan film was
exposed l/7 second and developed with Eastman D-ll, a highly contrast¬
ing developer. The negatives were magnified 10.5 times and the enlarge-

TABLE 1

The flame propagation velocities of 22:1 air-propane mixture at various
speeds of rotation of the rod in the burner throat

Flame Propagation Velocity

Speed of Rod (R. P. M.) (in./sec.)

0

14.1

1320

14.3

3200

14.7

5940

16.6

6750

17.6

7280

18.3

As the speed of the turbulence-creating rod was increased from zero to
72 80 revolutions per minute, the flame propagation velocity increased
from 14.1 (laminar value) to 18.3 inches per second, an increase of 30%
of the laminar flow value. All of the flame propagation velocities reported
here are, of course, average values, obtained by consideration of all parts
of the combustion cone.

Flame Propagation Velocities of Air-Propane

139

ments printed on Kodabromide F-4 enlarging paper. Under these conditions,
the outline of the flame appeared sufficiently distinct in the photograph to
permit the measurement of the cone area.

FLAME PROPAGATION VELOCITIES IN THE CONTROLLED
TURBULENCE BUNSEN BURNER

Rotating the rod of this burner did not result in the formation of a
visible two cone combustion zone such as characterized Damkohler’s rapidly
flowing oxy-propane mixtures. When the rod was rotating, the combustion
zone still appeared as a single cone; it was less distinct and flatter and had
its tip more noticeably rounded off than when the rod was not rotating,
but the outline was clear enough so that the cone area could be determined
by the method of graphical integration.

A mixture of 22 volumes of air and 1 volume of propane at 18° C.
and atmospheric pressure was burned at the rate of 7.5 cubic inches per
second while the rod was rotated at from zero to 7,2 80 revolutions per
minute. The diameter of the burner port was 0.422 inches. The flame
propagation velocities at various speeds of rotation of the rod are recorded
in Table 1 and shown graphically in Figure 3.

For comparison, laminar flame propagation velocities were determined
for air-propane mixtures of other proportions in the burner; that is, the
mixtures were burned and the velocities determined without rotating the
turbulence creator. The unburned mixtures were at 18° C. and atmos¬
pheric pressure. The propagation velocities of the various mixtures are
plotted in Figure 4. The propagation velocity of a 13:1 mixture was 4
inches per second, that of a 21:1 mixture was 14.3 inches per second; the
latter was the maximum velocity for a laminar air-propane mixture in this
burner. The maximum velocity of flame propagation is characteristic of
mixtures slightly richer than the stoichiometric (23.82:1). Propagation

140

The Texas Journal of Science

velocities of stoichiometric air-propane mixtures could not be measured in
the Purdue controlled turbulence burner; for any mixture leaner than
22:1 the flame blew off the port.

The flame propagation velocity of a laminar air-propane mixture
burning in a Bunsen type burner evidently depends markedly on the air-
propane ratio and somewhat on the specific character of the burner. As the
air-propane ratio in the controlled turbulence burner was increased from
13:1 to 21:1 the flame propagation velocity increased from 4 to 14.3 inches
per second, an increase of 2 50% of the lower velocity.

The flame propagation velocity in the maximum speed air-propane mix¬
ture measured in Corsiglia’s (1931) burner was 11.4 inches per second,
while that in Smith’s (1937) burner was 17 inches per second. An average
of six determinations of the propagation velocities of about 20.9:1 air-
propane mixtures made in Smith and Pickering’s (1936) 0.96 centimeter
diameter burner is 13.3 inches per second. The variation in the most widely
different of these results of other investigators, presumably due to specific
burner characteristics, is 50% of the lowest propagation velocity obtained.

LITERATURE CITED

Bone, W. A. and D. T. A. Townsend — 1927 — Flame and combustion in gases. Longmans,
Green & Co., London, England, p. 39.

Burk, R. E. and O. Grummitt — 1943 — The chemical background for engine research. Fron¬
tiers in Chemistry 2 : 7. Interscience Publishers, New York, N. Y.

Corsiglia, J. — 1931 — Am. Gas. Assoc. Mo. 13: 437.

Damkohler, G. — 1940 — Z. Elektrochem. 46 : 60.

Garside, J. E., Forsyth, J. S. and D. T. A. Townsend — 1945 — Inst, of Fuel 18: 175.

Gouy, M. — 1879 — Ann. C'him. Phy. 18 (5) : 1.

Jost, Wniif— 1946 — Explosions and combustion processes in gases. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, N. Y. P. 65. (Translated by H. O. Croft).

Lewis, B., and G. Von Elbe — 1943 — J. Chem. Phys. 11: 75.

Mache, H. — 1918 — Die Physik der Verbrennungserscheinungen. Veit and Co., Leipzig, Ger¬
many. P. 25-54.

Mallard, E. and H. L. Le Chatelier — 1883 — Ann. des Mines 4 (8) : 274.

Poll, A. N. J. van de and T. Westerdijk — 1941 — Z. Tech. Physik 22: 29.

Smith, F. A. — 1937 — Chem. Rev. 21: 389.

Smith, F. A. and S. F. Pickering — 1936 — J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards 17: 7. (Research
Paper No. 900).

Lewis — 1947 — Summaries and abstracts, meetings on fundamentals of combustion, Applied
Physics Lab., Johns Hopkins University, Silver Springs, Maryland, March 17 and 18,
1947. P. 8.

Von Elbe, G. and M. Mentser — 1945 — J. Chem. Phys. 13: 89.

A SEARCH FOR A BASIS OF PEACE AND HUMAN SECURITY

H. M. Holm, Th. D,

McMurry College
Abilene, Texas

CAUSES OF WAR

We know that if a physician is not able to diagnose a certain disease
and find the cause, he is not able to effect a cure. That pertains to epidemics
as well as to individual illness. Some five hundred years ago people assembled
in churches to pray to God to stop an epidemic which made it more wide¬
spread. As over against that it happened within my experience that a city
doctor, as president of the board of health, ordered all churches to be closed,
and they were closed for three months. The first step was to stop the epi¬
demic from spreading; the second step was to find the cause so as to prevent
its origin. It seems to me as if it is necessary to use a similar method in our
efforts to stop the outbreak of war.

A Search for a Basis of Peace and Security

141

We finally succeeded in stopping the last war after it had done an im¬
mense amount of damage. Now let us consider the causes of this war so as
to find a way to prevent another.

In the first place they had deep roots in the past. We have been told
that these roots are purely of economic nature. Europe, we were told, was
divided into "have” and "have not” nations, and that the latter could not
see any reason why they should not have what other nations had. There is
a great deal of truth in this. Undoubtedly a weighty reason for Germany
and Japan starting the last war was that they wanted free access to raw
material, free control of commerce and more land where they could put
their surplus population.

However the root of the cause of the last world war goes much deeper
than to economic problems. We have to search for it in the fields of sociology
and philosophy. We might say that the upper and narrower layer is eco¬
nomics, next layer is sociology and the real, underlying layer is philosophy,
as follows:

Economics

Sociology

Philosophy (Political
(Moral
(Religious

Of course it is true that the immediate cause of the war, started by
Germany and Japan, was that they wanted material advantages. It was
simply analogous to highway robbery among individuals. "I want what
you have. If you do not hand it over, it is not my fault that I have to
kill you.”

A somewhat deeper cause, however, was the unsatisfactory living
conditions in those countries. The German people were fascinated by Hitler’s
promise that they would not have to live a cramped life in the future but
would have a glorious time rolling in the meadows of France and the
Scandinavian countries, living in other people’s beautiful homes and enjoy¬
ing their delicious food. This, as we know, actually happened for a brief
period of time.

And yet we have to search still deeper for a cause of the last war, and
we find it in German philosophy, and that did not originate with Hitler.
He was not a cause but a product.

Germany, as we know, was not a united nation until 1870. But ap¬
proximately forty years before that time, some German philosophers started
to promote the doctrine that the Germans were superior to other people
in the world. This idea flared up soon after the empire was formed in 187*0.
Hambro (1942) says:

"From 1874, and on, Treitsche was lecturing at the University of
Berlin and thundering in the Reichdag; his popularity was enormous and
his influence even more so. He coolly declared that since Germany will
never be able to understand the world, the world must be conquered and
reformed so that it will be able to conform to German thought. But he
doubted that other nations were reformable and later wrote that Germany

142

The Texas Journal of Science

can never have peace with the world because to the German way of thought
the world is a foreign world which cannot be reformed, but can only be
overthrown.” He was the first great open exponent of the mailed-fist doc¬
trine; he claimed that Germany’s destiny was to conquer and dominate the
world and to hold the nations in thralldom (the geographical predesti¬
nation). There is no other force than the will of the State, and a Germany
"rightly constituted can recognize no earthly power, and might is right
only when a German wields the sword.” Germany must make it a duty to
employ traitors in the enemy state for its own interest,” and "every good
German is a latent, and when opportunity arises, an active spy.”

Again quoting Mr. Hambro:

"Treitsche had preached war, but he was no mystic and poet. Nietzsche
proclaimed war as a religious commandment:

"Ye have heard men say: Blessed are the peacemakers; but 1 say unto
you: Blessed are the war-makers for they shall be called, if not the children
of Yahweh, the children of Odin who is greater than Yahweh (the Jewish
and Christian God).”

Nietzsche and other philosophers developed the doctrine of Superman,
and that of Germans were "herrenvolk,” and because they were superior to
others they were destined to rule the world. The professors studied this
philosophy and taught it to future school teachers studying at the univer¬
sities; they again taught this doctrine in schools and colleges.

Personally I do not believe that this idea had matured to such an extent
in Germany before World War I that Wilhelm II actually intended to con¬
quer the world. I do not believe that he was as bad as he was pictured dur¬
ing that war. It seems as if he was a tool in the hands of the "Junkers,” or
military leaders.

We know that Germany actually tried to establish a democracy after
the first world war. But they had no background for a democracy and
were not able to handle it. It seems to me as if that was the time when the
strong nations might have prevented World War II.

As the bottom fell out of Germany’s economic system, most Germans,
including many intellectuals, surrendered their faith in the future and
took an attitude like this: "Our dream will never be realized. We are not
even able to handle our own affairs.”

Then up popped an enthusiastic paper hanger, a former corporal, and
said: "I can realize your dream. Just hand it over to me.”

Even the best Germans would take this attitude: "Let him try; it
cannot be any worse than it is now.”

When Hitler then took over the rulership he began to undermine the
moral and religious philosophy represented by the church. He appointed
as chief bishop a military man and told him to cut out all the passages in
the Bible teaching kindness, love and humility. The philosophers had pre¬
pared the ground for the rejection of the teachings of The Prince of Peace.
Hitler announced that there was no other God but Germany itself. And,
as Fiihrer, Hitler was to decide what was right and wrong. We know about
his unusually effective educational system, his political planning, and how
he succeeded in getting the Powers to help him to build up ..an army and
navy by which he would be able to conquer the world.

A few far-seeing men predicted what this would all lead to, but their
voices were not heard. There was a great deal of money involved in the

A Search for a Basis of Peace and Security 143

process of rearming Germany. Even laborers opposed any effort to stop it.
Dr. Bradley of Chicago said that he heard Winston Churchill lecturing
in England (before he became Prime Minister) pleading with tears that
shipments of war material to Germany be stopped, but even the laborers
booed him out. Chamberlain supported Hitler for two reasons: 1. He feared
Russian Communism. 2. He held investments in Germany.

Now it is my conviction that England, France and the United States
could have prevented World War II at an early stage, if they had known
how, and if the people would have been willing to follow such wise lead¬
ership. But most of the people in those countries were blinded by economic
gain and a wrong philosophy.

The German people themselves could have prevented both World War
I and II. But ethnocentricism blocked their vision, hindered them from see¬
ing a thing or cause from different angles and prevented them from under¬
standing the difference between right and wrong.

About four hundred Lutheran ministers with their leader, Pastor
Niemiiller, constituted noble exceptions. Hitler said to Niemuller in sub¬
stance, "You take care of your religious people and prepare them for Heaven
and let me handle civil and political affairs.” The minister’s reply was:
"Nein Herr Hitler, Nein. You will hear from me when you do something
wrong.” That was exactly the attitude of the Hebrew prophets. So when
Niemuller condemned Hitler’s doings from his pulpit and said: "Gott ist
mein fiihrer,” the soldiers took him down from the pulpit and put him in
the concentration camp where he remained for eight years.

If fifty million Germans instead of four hundred had taken a stand
with Niemuller, there would have been no World War II and no such
miserable conditions for the Germans as they are in today. In other words,
the majority of the population of an aggressive country can, if they want
to, prevent a world catastrophy. The common people of Sweden prevented
war with Norway in 1903, and what they did in Sweden others can do in
other countries; but after a country is attacked there is nothing else to do
but to put up a defense. In other words, freedom-loving people will rather
die than be slaves.

Now, only four years after the world blood-bath we are facing the
possibility of its repetition.

It might not happen. Some say it cannot happen within the next ten
years. Others again, with expert knowledge, tell us that it might happen
any time. Hence we gain nothing by ignoring the possibility. As we know
what the results will be, we ought to move heaven and earth in order to
prevent it.

Considering the present situation we find some similarities between
the dominating Russian philosophy and the philosophy promoted in Ger¬
many before the last war. Both deny the existence of God and reject the
teachings of Jesus. Lenin wrote that Communism does not recognize the
existence of any God of any kind. I heard a minister from Moscow say
that any one who joins the Communist party must swear a solemn oath
that he does not believe in any God. Consequently there is no standard of
right and wrong. The dictator alone sets the standard. When at the begin¬
ning of his rule Stalin issued an order that some people be killed his secre¬
tary said, "But Mr. Stalin, this is wrong.” The reply was, "I decide what
is right and wrong.”

144

The Texas Journal of Science

Dr. Dunnington, a friend in the ministry, said that when he was in
the courthouse in a certain city in Russia a couple came in to get a mar¬
riage license. The clerk of court, a lady, asked the man, "Are you able to
support a wife?” Before the man could answer, the woman said, "You
don’t need to be concerned about it. I am collecting alimony from five
husbands.” The license was granted immediately.

The political situation of today, however, is different from the situa¬
tion before and during the last war. It does not seem as if the aim of Stalin
and Russia is to make all nations subject to the country of Russia. Today
we are face to face with a world-wide revolutionary movement, and it did
not originate in Russia.

The Communist Manifesto issued by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels
about a hundred years ago in England has not been an active threat to world
peace until the last two or three years. It is interesting to notice that of the
ten points in the Manifesto, the following three have been adopted either
in whole or in part by the democratic countries including the United States:

"2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax.

7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the
State; and bringing into cultivation of waste lands, and the improvement
of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan. (Adopted in part).

10. Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of
children’s factory labor in its present form. Combination of education with
industrial production, etc.”

If Communism would confine itself to working for the gradual adop¬
tion of the ten points, it does not seem as if that alone would constitute a
threat to world peace. But Marx and Engels went far beyond that in "The
Manifesto.” They say: "The Communists distain to conceal their views
and aims.”

They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible
overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble
at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but
their chains. They have a world to win.

Working men of all countries, unite!”

Lenin and Stalin have said plainly that the method of reform is alto¬
gether too slow. They say that Communism can not and must not be satis¬
fied until every government in the world is overthrown and the proletarians
become rulers. Both of them admit, however, that while proletarians are
not able to rule, the, problem is easily settled by dictatorship.

The method of Communism differs from that of Flitler in that it
does not wish to conquer one country after another by sheer military
power. It wants to win the common people by propaganda. It would seem
reasonable that the aim of Communism would be to win a majority in
every country and in that way establish a Communist government. But
Stalin in his book on Leninism says that Communism cannot wait for a
majority in any country. He says that the method is to get a number of
Communists large enough to be able to overthrow the government and
then issue orders to the population to obey. Obedience must be secured by
force. It is well known that this is the method they have used in Russia
and the satellite countries.

We are told by authorities that Russia can easily take one country
after another in Europe beginning with the small ones, if each country

t A Search for a Basis of Peace and Security 145

stands alone. If this should occur we know it would be disastrous to the
United States.

It is not difficult to understand why Communism is attractive to the
proletariat in middle and southern Europe. Millions of people are crying
for breads clothes and shelter. Communism promises these things to every¬
body. Many people, who have had little or no liberty in the past, prefer
bread.

When Dr. George Mecklenburg, of Minneapolis, travelled in Germany
before we entered the war he said to a German who praised Hitler, "But
you have no liberty here.55 The reply was, "Liberty! What do we care about
liberty? We want bread. Hitler gives us bread.”

In addition to the supply of bread Communism promises the starving
people to dominate the country and to obtain the money that the rich
people have.

It is natural that such a program should appeal to the starving people
in middle and southern Europe, but why and how is it that Communism
is making considerable progress in the United States?

One reason probably is the widespread fear of war with Russia. It is
natural to think that if we could have Communistic government in the
United States we would have everlasting peace with Russia. But would that
include human security? It seems to me that our fear of war would just
be converted to fear of being killed by order of the government. Another
reason why Communism appeals to the common people of the United
States is that most of our wealth is in the hands of a few, and that there
is an unreasonable difference in the income of a few in almost all occupa¬
tions as over against the income of the rank and file.

Of course we know that people occupied in manual labor are better off
in the United States than in any other country. We also know that they
are better off than they have ever been. But when they look at those who
have earned millions and billions from the laborer’s toil they cannot help
but think that they have not received the proper share of their earnings.

This discrepancy does not only exist between capital and labor. Cuber
and Harper (1948) give a list of the highest earningsof about half a dozen
individuals in a number of occupations. Let me quote, a few:

"The ministry _ _ _ _ — _ — — — _ - _ - :_____$ 15,000.00

Teaching (not including income from textbooks) - 15,000.00

Teaching (including income from textbooks) _ 50,000.00

Medicine and surgery _ _ _ _ — 200,000.00

Law _ _ 1: _ _ _ 1__ 300,000.00

Business management _ _ _ _ 400,000.00

Acting ____*_ _ _ ;__ _ _____ _ _ _ _ 400,000.00

Entrepreneurial ability _ J__ _ 2,000,000.00”

This information gives us a vivid picture of the unwillingness of the
most fortunate people in most occupations to share with their fellowmen.
Even in the ministry, whose mission it is to promote brotherly love, some
members of the profession are accepting salaries far beyond their needs,
while their fellow ministers do not receive enough for a comfortable living.
It seems as if brotherly love and sharing is not practiced by all who preach
it! However, steps have been taken in the right direction by the establish¬
ment of minimum salaries.

146

The Texas Journal of Science

The picture that I have tried to present of the situation we are in is
very inadequate, yet I think it might help us to see what Communism
stands for and why it is making great progress in the world. We may not
know all about it, but when we know its ultimate aim as definitely ex¬
pressed by Marx, Lenin and Stalin we can see how extremely difficult it
is to make lasting peace with Communism. It seems as if we either have
to accept it or fight it. The crucial question then is, how should we fight it?

Do we have to go to war with Russia in order to stop the progress of
Communism? We have been told what the results of another world war
will be. Some experts have also told us that if we go to war with Russia
immediately we have good prospect of winning. A few have said that that
would be the best thing to do.

Suppose that we win a war with Russia, without being destroyed our¬
selves, what would we have on our hands? In the first place a devastated
Europe in a condition many times worse than now. In the second place a
country to control several times the size of our own. How could we pre¬
vent Communism from rising again?

One of our popular magazines stated when the Third Party, called the
Liberal Party, made up its platform one point was to make terms with
Russia and let Stalin have what he wants. If that should be realized we
would be just where we were when Hitler made his demands. Finally noth¬
ing could stop him but war. That would be so now.

I do not consider myself qualified to state how we can avoid war with
Russia, and if I were qualified I would be too insignificant to be heard.

However, in our search for a basis of peace and human security it
seems to me as if the following principles and methods, some of which have
been suggested by eminent experts, would be helpful:

1. That all nations of the world support the organization of the United
Nations and accept its findings and decisions as we in the United States
accept the decisions of our Supreme Court.

2. As Russia does not seem to be willing to take the attitude the other
nations should form a solid compact to stand together in case of invasion or
Communistic revolution.

The idea once promoted by the late French statesman Briand, and
others, of a United Europe like the United States is not practical or feasible.
The small nations take great pride in handling their own affairs, and some
of them do it better than some large nations, only they are not able to defend
themselves against overwhelming military powers.

The idea of a society of nations is not new as Immanuel Kant developed
such a plan about two hundred years ago. It is high time to put this plan
into practice.

3. The Atlantic Pact would serve as an effective means of protection
and prevention of war.

4. A program should be worked out by which the common people of
all non-Communist countries would bee given an opportuity to earn enough
money to provide a comfortable living. I realize that such a plan would be
extremely difficult to work out, but it would be a safe bulwark against
Communism. When the common people are satisfied they have no desire for
Communism, and Russia neither would nor could attack a country where
there is no base. In this respect it seems as if the Marshall plan is a step in
the right direction. Unless we help Europe to get on her feet,, a large number

A Search for a Basis of Peace and Security

147

of people will prefer bread to freedom just as the Germans did under Hitler.

5. In the United States it seems to me as if we ought to use different
methods in fighting Communism than we have used and are using. We use the
method of abuse, condemnation and persecution. History shows that move¬
ments, religious or otherwise, have been strengthened by being persecuted.
Why not try the method of adoption of the good points or of revamping
our social and economic system? It would mean great sacrifice to the people
at the top of our social and economic ladder; but it certainly would be
better even for them than revolution and the rule of Communism. After
all, the common people are in majority, and history shows that they can
get what they want, if the situation comes to be desperate. A boiling kettle
will burst if the steam has no outlet. We only need to mention the French
Revolution of 1789 and the Russian revolution of 1917. When the pro¬
letarians get the upper hand with dictatorship there is no place to stop, and
there is no mercy for the rich.

Suppose now that we could get a system by which the owners of our
large industries would share their profits with the employees so as to make
the latter feel that they were partners in the business and were receiving
approximately what they were earning? The owners would perhaps not be
able to pile up billions of dollars, but they should be allowed a considerable
margin of profit. They certainly would be better off than under Communistic
rule when they would have nothing, as abolition of private property is a
definite goal of Communism. Stalin explains, however, that any man will
be permitted to keep the property that he has earned with his own labor,
but that it will be taken away from the wealthy because the laborers have
earned it for them.

The cooperative movement is a step in the right direction. Its aim is
not to do away with competition and private enterprise but to make it
strong enough to control prices of merchandise and wages of labor. As such
it would make a contribution to the general welfare and satisfaction of
the common people so that they would not want Communism. Hence it
would act as a strong factor in the ' promotion of permanent peace and
human security.

The cooperative movement worked wonders in Sweden and Denmark
before World War II. Great professors of economics in our eastern univer¬
sities went to Sweden to study the system there. Upon his return one of
them wrote a book entitled: Sweden the Middle Way . It was a way between
Communism and capitalism. The common people did not take any money
away from the rich, as in Russia, but banded themselves solidly together
and entered into competition with the capitalists. The result was that in
those countries the common people (especially farmers and laborers) con¬
trolled the market prices, improved social conditions and controlled the
politics of their country. The kings and the governments were also on the
side of the common people. Of course it is much easier to make such a
system work in a small country than in a large country where capitalism
is as strong as in the United States.

As a summary I shall try to put up a few main guide posts for use in
our search for a basis of peace and human security:

1. It is difficult, almost impossible, to make lasting satisfactory terms
with Russian Communism as its ultimate aim is revolution and overthrow
of government,

148

The Texas Journal of Science

2. Abusing, misrepresenting and fighting Communism by persecution
and war will fail to bring peace and human security.

3. The philosophy of pacifism, that no country will have war that is
not prepared for it, broke down during the last war. Pacifistic countries
were overrun by the enemy. They were simply exposed to the robbers.

4. Reforming and revamping the social and economic system in non-
Communistic countries so as to provide security and satisfaction to common
people would be a strong safeguard against revolution and war.

5. It is not just that able and faithful people in various occupations
and professions should only be allowed a bare existence-earning while others
with little or no more preparation and ability live in luxury and abundance.
Hence a maximum earning should be established, the surplus to be divided
among the people in the lower brackets according to faithfulness, prepara¬
tion and ability.

6. We should keep in mind that Communism is an atheistic as well
as a revolutionary movement. Its dominance would not only do away with
freedom of belief and freedom of worship but consequently would cause
the downfall of moral ideals.

It is to be deplored, even from the point of view of sociology and
morality, that atheistic elements in our country have succeeded in securing
a ruling of the majority of the Supreme Court, forbidding the teaching of
religion and the Bible on public school time. Religious and moral instruc¬
tion of the young is a stronger element contributing to human security in
any country than laws, punishment or force from the outside.

I know that compulsory religious education is impossible in the United
States; but in the Scandinavian countries, where that has been practiced
for several hundred years, the crime element is low and the general moral¬
ity is high.

What I have written contains only a few suggestions for a search for
peace and human security. Neither one person nor a small group would be
able to bring about the changes that would make for such peace and se¬
curity. It would take groups of experts to work out a plan in the first place.
Then it would take a tremendous amount of propaganda and systematic
education to win support and action on the part of the people. It seems as
if we would have to use a regimentation method at least partly similar to
that of Hitler. Some people turn thumbs down on any plan imposing on
their personal freedom. But our present situation is such that if a definite
plan is not worked out, and some desperate efforts are not made to put it in
operation Communism will keep on gaining ground, and if it comes to
dominate the world there will be little or no freedom for anybody.

LITERATURE CITED

Hambra, C. J. — 1942 — How to make peace. J. B. Lippincot Co.

Hoople, Piper, Tolley — 1947 — Preface to philosophy. Book of Readings. The Macmillan

Company.

Cuber, J. F. and R. A. Harper — 1948 — Problems of American society. Henry Holt & Co.
Kant, Immanual — 1939 — Perpetual peace. Columbia University Press.

Stalin, Joseph — 1932 — Foundations of Leninism. International Publishers, Nek York.

Knudson, A. C. — 1947 — The philosophy of war and peace. Abington-Cokesbury Press, New

York.

The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences.

1. July 1947. Progress and Prospects of the United Nations.

2. May 1948. Peace Settlements of World War II.

3. July 1948. Looking Toward One World.

Ed. Note: Permission for the use of the various quotations used in Dr. Holm’s paper
was very kindly given by the following publishers : Henry Holt and Co., The MacmiUaxi Co.,
and J. B. Lippincott Co,

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Dallas, Texas

Orr, Anne Estelle 47
P. O. Box 2205
Dallas, 1, Texas

*Poth, Dr. J. Edgar 45F46
Physician-Surgeon
Univ. of Texas Med. Branch

I Galveston, Texas

Powell, W. T. 48
Teacher, Sul Ross
Box 808

III Alpine, Texas

Raymond, Thomas W. 48
Asst. Prof, of Biology
S.F.A.S.T.C.

II Nacogdoches, Texas

Robinson, William E. 48
Teacher, Hillsboro Jr. Col.

P. O. Box 23, BU Station
I Waco, Texas

*Rust, W. M. Jr. 45F48
Geophysicist

P. O. Box 2180, Humble Oil Co.
I Houston, Texas

Samuel, William A., Jr. 48
Chemist

Prairie View A & M

I Prairie View, Texas

Schipper, Dr. Arthur L. 37
Biology Prof.

Dept, of Biology, Uni. of
Notre Dame

II Notre Dame, Indiana

Schlader, Dr. Jerome B. 48
Dental Teacher
1200 Sante Fe St.

Corpus Christi, Texas

Scruggs-C’arruth, Margaret 48
Insurance & Prof. S. M. U.

3715 Tdrtle Creek Blvd.

V Dallas, 4, Texas

Shaw, Emil G. 48
Teacher

East Texas State Teachers C.

II Commerce, Texas

Shaw, S. Fred 46
Consulting Mining & Pet. Eng.
301 Terrell Rd.

IV San Antonio, Texas

Shook, Ellen Louise 48
Lab. Instructor
Dept, of Geology, U of H
IV Houston, Texas

Smith, Garland Albert 48
Student & Geological Scout
641 Grape St.

IV Abilene, Texas

Spence, Harry M., M. D. 48
S Physician

4105 Live Oak St.

III Dallas, Texas

*Spencer, Dr. S. R. 38F47
Physics Dept., Baylor Univ.

821 Speight Ave.

I Waco, Texas

Steinicke, David G. 48
Sociology Teacher, A & M
F. E. Box 255

III College Station, Texas

*Stoker, Spencer 37F43
S Prof, of Education
Drawer B. TSCW

III Denton, Texas

* Street, W. E'. 42F46

Dept, of Eng. Drawing, A & M
College Station, Texas

Taylor, Alfred 46
Research Biologist
Biochemical Institute
Austin, Texas

Thawley, Leonard 46
S 1408 W. Tennessee

IV Midland, Texas

Thornton, Wilmot A. 48
Student, U of T.

602 Elmwood Place
II Austin, Texas

Toole, Marion 39
Chief Aquatic Biologist
3401 Windsor Rd.

V Austin, Texas

*Upton, R. G. 38F46
Prof, of Biology
SFASC

Nacogdoches, Texas

Voss, Geraldine 48

Teacher

1211 Austin

I Denton Texas

Webster, Eugene B. 48

Teacher

220 N. Beard St.

II Shawnee, Oklahoma

Williams, D. W. 40
Head Dept. Animal Husbandry
A & M College
II College Station, Texas

Zenor, Hughes M. 48
Teacher

P. O. Box 7415
I Houston, Texas

Membership List

153

GENERAL MEMBERSHIP 1949

Achterberg, George W. 47
S P. O. Box 1066

Sweetwater, Texas

Adam, Brother Wendel, C.S.C. 48
Instructor Biology
St. Edwards’ Univ.

II Austin, 1, Texas

*Adams, Dr. Roy H. 44F46
Dean of College
Sam Houston State College

II Huntsville, Texas

Adams, O. V. 46

Div. of Eng., Texas Tech.

2905 Twentieth St.

III Lubbock, Texas

*Adriance, Guy W. 45F47
Prof, of Horticulture
II College Station, Texas

Agnew, Letha Alice 48
S Chemistry Teacher, High School
1207 Palm Dr.

I Corpus, Christi, Texas

Akin, Miss Berta 44
A Head Science Dept.

II Waskom, Texas

*Albers, Dr. C'. Clarence 32F48
S Teacher of Pharmacy

A College of Pharmacy, Univ. Sta.,

II Austin, 12, Texas

!!!Albritton, Claude C. Jr. 37F40
3436 U. Blvd.

IV Dallas, 5, Texas

Allen, Mr. E. G. 46
Geologist

6745 Avalon Ave.

IV Dallas, 14, Texas

Allen, Mr. Ralph H., Jr. 49
Senior Biologist
Dept. Conservation
II Montgomery, Alabama

Allred, B. W. 46

Chief, Regional Range Div.

6405 Garland

Ft. Worth, 7, Texas

Altgelt, Ernest S. 48
S Consulting Engineer

Rt. 8, Box 252
San Antonio, Texas

Althaus, Henry O. 48
Science Teacher
Box 462

V Rosenberg, Texas

Ames, Mr. Edward W. 49
Consulting Geologist & Mining Eng.
A Box 828

IV Seguin, Texas

Anderson, Hulon N. 38
Supt. of Schools
Box 469

II Conroe, Texas

Anderson, Mr. Jack W. 49
Asst. Prof. Agriculture
1502 Ave. K.

II Huntsville, Texas

Anderson, Miss Laura 40

Biology Teacher
2401 Oakdale
Houston, Texas

Anderson, Dr. Robbin C. 47
Chem. Dept., U of T
Austin, Texas

Anderwald, Mr. Frank R. 48

Ranch Foreman
c/o Cutbirth Ranch
V Fresno, Texas

Anigstein, Prof. Ludwik 48
Prof, of Prev. Med.

A Univ. of Texas Med. Branch

II Galveston, Texas

Anthis, Mrs. Fay Wright 47
Head Home Eco. Div., W of H
3726 Cleburne
II Houston, Texas

*Armer, Sister Joseph Marie 30F
Biology Teacher
Incarnate Word College
II San Antonio, 9, Texas

Armstrong, Mr. George S. 47
Pres. George S. Armstrong & Co.

52 Wall St.

I New York, 5, N. Y.

Arnette, Mr. D. W. 33
Biology Teacher
2165 Swenson

II Abilene Texas

*Arnim, Dr. Sumter Smith 48F49
Dental Teacher (Restorative)

F Univ. of Texas Sch. of Dentistry
II Houston, 4, Texas

Arnold, Mrs. Betty Anne 46

Housewife

Arnold Ranch

II Ashland, Kansas

Arnold, Mr. D. Clayton 47
Atty. & Pet. Eng.
c/o Nat’l. Bk. of Tulsa
I Tulsa, Okla.

Ashmore, James 49
Research Chemist, S. W. Med. Col.
A 2211 Oak Lawn Ave.

I Dallas, Texas

Atkins, Mr. G. T. 47
S Sr. Engineer, Project Design Div.

A Box 183

I Highlands, Texas

Atkinson, Dr. Carroll 48
Formerly Dean of Men
A Southwestern University

III Georgetown, Texas

Austin, Mr. H. R. 47
Pres., M'. W. Kellogg Co.

225 Broadway
I New York, 7, N. Y.

Avery, Mr. Paul C. 33
Asst. Plant Quarantine Insp.

A P. O. Box 31

II Mission, Texas

154

The Texas Journal of Science

Bagwell, L. Raymond 47
6222 Gay St.

Houston, 9, Texas

Bailey, Mr. Orris G. 49
Super. Science & Math
2206 Brun

I Houston Texas

*Baird, Mrs. Gladys H. 32F40
Teacher
Box 228

III Huntsville, Texas

Baker, B. B. Jr. 49
Marine Biologist

II Rockport, Texas

Bakke, W. E. 46
W. E. Bakke Oil Co.

119 Seeling Blvd.

IV San Antonio, Texas

Baldwin, Edward F. 49
S Export Representative,

Hughes Tool Co.

3963 Del Monte
Houston 19, Texas

^Baldwin, Dr. James W. 39F48
Prof. Education
Sutton Hall 219, Univ. Sta.

III Austin, 12, Texas

Balleisen, Charles Edward 49
Supt., Mech. Lab.

A S West Research
326 Ligstrum

I San Antonio, 1, Texas

Banck Leo J., S. M'., 48

St. Marys’ Univ.

Sari Antonio Texas

*Bantel, EL C. H. F30
Teacher of Civil Eng.

2307 San Antonio St.

I Austin, Texas

Barber, Walter W. 49
S Gen. Mgr., L. N. Dantzler Lumber
Co.

TV Perkinston, Miss.

*Barkley, Dr. Fred A. 43F46
Prof. Extraordinario
A Miguel Lillo No. 205

II Tucuman, Arentina
*Barkley, Mr. William W. F47

Tech. Spec. In Welch Apparatus
P. O. Box 550
II Austin, 3, Texas

Barnes, Miss Adele 42
Science Instructor, Amarillo Col.

A 3006 Hughes St.

II Amarillo, Texas

Barnes, Mr. George G. 46
S Bakery Manager
1800-7 St.

II Pt. Arthur, Texas

*Barnett, Mr. D. G. 46F49
F Geologist Union Producing Co.

P. O. Box 711

IV Beeville, Texas

Barr, Dr. John Haddin 48
Assoc. Prof. Medicine
A 1018 Blodgett
II Houston, 4, Texas

*Barrow, Mr. L. T. 37F3&

Chairman of the Board
A 3314 Chevy Chase Dr.

IV Houston, 19, Texas

Bartlett, Terrell 47
2700 Transit Tower
San Antonio, Texas

Battle, Jack L. 47
Humble Oil & Refining Co.

P. O. Box 2180
Houston 1, Texas

*Baughman, Mr. J. L. 46F46
Chief Marine Biologist
Box 867

V Rockport, Texas

Begeman, Mr. M. L. 46
A Dept, of Mech. Eng., U of T
I Austin, Texas

Bell, John S. 46
Humble Oil Co.

Box 2025

I Tyler, Texas

Beninson, Dr. Joe 48

Med. Student, Research Assoc.

1409 Broadway

II Galveston, Texas

Bennett, Roy 49
Student

226 So. 3rd St.

I Abilene, Texas

*Berkman, Dr. Anton H. 30F40
Biological Sciences Teacher
F Texas Western College of U of T

II El Paso Texas

Bertram, Alexander Carl 47
S 6403 Edloe

Houston, 5, Texas

Bertschler, G. W. 33
Teacher of Physics
4906 Alamo Dr.

I Galveston, Texas

Bible, Mr. John L. 46
Pres., Tidelands Exp. Co.

A 2626 Westheimer Rd.

IV Houston, Texas

Bierberdorf, Frederick W. (Dr.’)
Research Assoc. Found App. Res.

A 3500 W. Woodlawn Dr.

II San Antonio, Texas

Biesele, Prof. R. L., Jr. 47
Prof. & Head Dept. Electrical Eng.
3241 Amherst

I Dallas, 5, Texas

Bishop, Harold C. 49
S Independent Oil & Gas Operator
915 City Nat’l. Bank Bldg.

IV Houston 2, Texas

:!:Black, James Harvey M. D. 46F49
F 1405 M’ed. Arts Bldg.

II Dallas, Texas

Blair Dr. W. Frank 47
Asst. Prof. Zoology
A Zoology Dept., Univ. of Texas
TI Austin 12 Texas

Baker Mr. Leo L. 46
Pet. Engineer De Golyer & Mac
Naughton
3118 Carlson
IV Dallas, 9, Texas

Membership List

155

Blanchard, A. 49

Charge Engineering Dept.

Schlumberer Well Surveying Corp.

I Box 2175, Houston 1, Texas

*Blank Horace R. (Dr.) 43F46
Assoc. Prof. Geology
Dept. Geology, A. & M.

IV College Station, Texas

Blucher, Mr. Conrad M. 45
S Civil Engineer
A 245 Rosebud

I Corpus Christi, Texas

Blum, Mr. E. H. 47
S Vice-Prs. & Gen. Mgr. Crude Oil
Prod.

P. 0. Box 2819
IV Dallas, 1, Texas

Bodemann, Dr. Elsie 35
Biology Teacher, ETSTC
A 2401 Bryan St.

II Commerce, Texas

*Boner, Dr. C. P. 34F34
Teacher of Physics
F P. O. Box 1, Univ. Station

I Austin, Texas

Bonner, Louis 44
Box 2180

IV Houston, Texas

Bounds, Miss Nell 49

Assoc. Prof, of Physics, Hardin Col.

2014 Tenth St.

I Wichita Falls, Texas

Bowman, W. F. 46
Consulting Geologist
709 Espei’son Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

Box, E. O. 49
Prof. Physics
A Box 1066
I Commerce, Texas

Boyle, James W., Jr., M. D. 47
Shiner Clinic, Physician & Sur.

II Shiner, Texas

Boyle, Mr. Walter J. 46
Pet. Geologist
1207 Milam Bldg.

IV San Antonio, Texas

ter Braake, Mr. A. L. 44
Pres. & Gen. M'gr. Tin Proc. Co.
P. O. Box 1461
IV Texas City, Texas

Braden, Albert H., M. D. 46
S Physician, Allergist
A 1704 Crawford St.

II Houston, Texas

^Breeder, Dr. C. M. Jr. 49F49
Chmm. Dept. Fishes & Aquatic Bio.
F American Museum of Natural Hist.
II New York, 24, N. Y.

Briggs, Frank 46

Engineer, Houston Oil Field Mat.

Box 2589

I Houstpn, Texas

Briggs, Geo. Waverly 47
First Nat’l. Bank
Dallas, Texas

*Brindley, Dr. Paul 40F
Prof. Pathology
F 925 Ave. B.

II Galveston, Texas

Briscoe, Rose 47
S D. & H. Chevrolet Co.

303 East Third St.

Pecos, Texas

*Brison, Fred R. 48F48
Horticulture Teacher
Horticulture Dept. A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Broad, Mr. Thomas D. 47
Architect, Engineer, & Planner
618 Res. Loan Life Bldg.

V Dallas, 1, Texas

Broadhurst, William Leslie 49
Geologist, U. S. Geological Sur.

302 West 15th St.

IV Austin, Texas

Bronaugh, Richmond L. 46
Instructor Geology, Baylor U.

A 1919 Sanger Ave.

IV Waco, Texas

Brown, Mr. Bryce C. 48
Asst. Prof. & Assoc. Curator
Strecker Museum, Baylor Univ.

II Waco, Texas

Brown, Mrs. Ella 48
520 Quincy (East)

San Antonio, Texas

*Brown, Mrs. Meta Suche 36F
Assoc. Prof.

Dept, of Agronomy, A & M’

II College Station, Texas

Brown, Norris 39
S Dist. Rep. Harshaw Chem. Co.

3020 Lubbock St.

I Ft. Worth, 4, Texas

Brown, Sidney O. 35
Biology Research Lab.

Box 4849

II College Station, Texas

Brown, Dr. Walter V. 48
Asst. Prof. Botany
A Dept, of Botany, IT. of T.

II Austin, 12, Texas

Bro wnscombe, E. R. 46
1420 El Campo
IV Dallas, 18, Texas

Bryant, Dr. M. D. 44
Egg Dehydration
Austin College
II Sherman, Texas

Buchan, R. C. 46
Box 2180

IV Houston, Texas

Bullen, Charles Victor (Mr.) 44
Prof. & Head Dept, of Elec. Eng.
E. E. Dept., Texas Tech.

I Lubbock, Texas

Buis, Mr. William C. 49
Geology Student
Box 461

IV Richmond, Texas

Burgess, Dr. B. Edward 49
DDS

2418 Travis St.

II Houston, 6, Texas

156

The Texas Journal of Science

Burgess, J. W. 47
Box 763
Dumas, Texas

Burgin, Mr. C. J. 48
Chief Foulbrood Insp.

Dept, of Entomology, A & M
II College Station, Texas

Burkhart, H. Ray 49
Asst. Prof. A. H.

A. H. Dept. Texas Tech.

II Lubbock, Texas

Carter, D. V. 46
5930 Hudson St.

I Dallas, Texas

Cashin, Mr. D’Arcy M. 49
S Consulting Geologist & Pet. Eng.
2018 Nat’l. Standard Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

Cavitt,. Hugh, (Mr.) 46

Plant Quarantine Inspector
606 E. Fillmore

V Harlingen, Texas

Burnett, Earl 49
Asst. Prof, of Agronomy
108 Ave. W.

V Lubbock, Texas

Burton, Mr. George E. 46
Geologist Sun Oil Co.

6th Floor Turner Hotel

II Gainesville, Texas

Burton, William H. 49

College Teacher

P. O. Box 24, S. U. Sta.

III Georgetown, Texas

Butts, Mr. James A. 46
Dist. Eng. Tidewater Assoc. Oil
Drawer 152
I Kilgore, Texas

* Bybee, Hal P. 30F34
Prof. Geology, U. of T.

A 1406 Enfield Rd.

IV Austin 21, Texas

Byron, C. W. 46
S 1402 M. Esperson \g.

IV Houston, Texas

Callender, Mr. R. E. 43
Extension Service
Box 254, A. & M.

V College Station, Texas

Calohan, M'r. William F. 47
Geologist, Consulting-
414 Sames-Moore Bldg.

I Laredo, Texas

Calvin, Dr. D. Bailey 49
Prof, of Bio. Chemistry
Med. Branch U. of T.

II Galveston, Texas

^Campbell, Mr. Kenneth P. 46
Metallurgist, Sheffield Steel Corp.
P. O. Box 3129

I Houston, Texas

* Camp well, Dr. Thomas Nolan 48F49
S Assoc. Prof. Anthropology

F Anthropology Dept., U. of T.

III Austin, 12, Texas

*Capt. Miss Lucille 30F46
Teacher, Mary Hardin Baylor
A Box 476, Baylor” Station

II Belton, Texas

Carlton, D. P. 46
Geologist

856 Humble Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

Carman, Dr. Katharine W. 40
S Geologist, Carman & Hanagan
933 Michigan Ave.

IV Evanston, Ill.

*Carrico, James L. 36F46
Professor of Chem.

1922 Chestnut (West)

I Denton, Texas

Cerno, Virginia 49
Teacher, Edgewood Sch.

504 E. Guenther

II San Antonio, Texas

""Chambers, Dr. William T. 36F41
Geography Teacher & Head Dept.
Box 214 N. St. Station
IV Nacogdoches, Texas

j: Cheney, Mr. M. G. F36
S Oil Geologist & Producer
F Box 846
IV Coleman, Texas

Cheney, Mr. Monroe G. Jr. 49
A Physics Teacher

I Coleman, Texas

Cherry, Mr. Robert G. 48

Tax Economist

Dept. Ag. Eco. & Soc.

III College Station, Texas

Claiborne, Ray 46
3417 Bellaire Dr. So.

Ft. Worth, Texas

*Clare, Sister Mary 45F
Biology Prof.

Our Lady of the Lake College

II San Antonio, Texas

!!:Clarence, Sister Mary 34F
Chemistry Prof.

A Our Lady of the Lake College
I San Antonio, 7, Texas

Clark, H. Smith (Mr.) 46
S Geologist & Eng.

2307 Warner Rd.

I Ft. Worth, Texas

* Clark, R. T. Jr. 42F46 ,

Abilene Christian College
Abilene, Texas

Clark, S. W. 48
Manager Agri. Dept.

A 1002 Second Nat’l. Bk. Bldg.

II Houston, 2, Texas

Clark, Mr. William K. 48
Grad. Student & Teaching Fellow
Dept, of Zoology, U. of T.

II Austin, Texas

Clark, Willis H. 44
Teacher

Box 3927, TSCW Station
I Denton, Texas

Clawson, Chas. H. 49
Social Science Inst.

Amarillo College

III Amarillo, Texas

Clements, John H. 49
Head Physics Dept.

A 2209 Taylor St.

I Commerce, Texas

Membership List

157

*Cline, Dr. Joseph L. 34F34
S Meteorologist
231 W. 12th St.

Dallas, Texas

*Clough, Dr. George O. 41F41
Director of Extension
Box 624, S. M. U.

III Dallas, Texas

Cockrum, Dr. E. D. 49
Lab. & M'ed. Director
107 New Haven Dr.

II San Antonio, Texas

Cole, C. Taylor 46
611 W. Missouri St.

1Y Midland Texas

Collette, Allan, M. D. 48
Director U. of H. Health Service
3801 St. Bernard St.

II Houston, Texas

Colquitt, Landon A. 48
Teacher

2124 Fairmont Ave.

I Ft. Worth, 4, Texas

Connell, W. B. 49

Supt. Hot Wells Public Sch.

328 Avondale

San Antonio, Texas

Cornelius, L. W. 39
Tester in Lab.

3228 Iowa St., Station A.

I Baytown, Texas

*Cortes, Mr. Henry C. 46F48
S Asst. Mgr. Exp. Dept.

F P. O. Box 900, Magnolia Pet. Co.

IV Dallas, Texas

Cosey, Glenn 49
Biological Sciences
1952 West Concho St.

San Angelo, Texas

Cowan, Frank A. 44
Army

2201 Schulle Ave.

II Austin, Texas

‘‘‘Crichton, Mr. Jack A. 48F49
Pet. Engineer & Geologist
F 1000 Continental Bldg.

IV Dallas, Texas

Cross, Dr. Joy Barnes 44
Research Assoc, fn Bacteriology
1128 Church St.

Galveston, Texas

Crosthwait, Dr. W. L. 43
Surgeon, Crosthwait Clinic
A 107-S. 18th St.

II Waco, Texas

Crowell, John H. 46
3416 Ella Lee Lane
I Houston, Texas

Culberson, Hon. Olin 44
S R. R. Commissioner
Tribune Bldg.

III Austin, Texas

Culli, Mr. George Jr. 45
Super. Shellfish Sanitation
Box 49

I Corpus Christi, Texas

Dake, Laurence F. 46
1106 Main St.

IV Rollo, Miss.

“‘Damon, Dr. H. Gordon 37F40
S Assoc. Prof.

A Box 1561, Univ. Station
IV Austin, Texas

Dante, John H. 46

3527 Runnymede PI. N. W.

IV Washington, 15, D. C.

Daugherty, Mr. F. M. Jr. 49
Marine Biologist
Box 512

II Rockport, Texas

Davidson, Floyd F. 46
Box 122, Baylor Univ.

Waco, Texas

Davidson, Mr. K. B. 46
Div. Pet. Eng.

P. O. Box 840, Humble Oil Co.

IV Wichita Falls, Texas

*Davis, Dr. J. DeWitte 43F46
Education Teacher
T/C Arts & Industries

III Kingsville, Texas

Davis, L. Irby 39
Box 988

Harlingen, Texas

Davis, Lea 49
Asst. Prof. Biology
1506 Boise Ave.

V Commerce, Texas

Davis, Mr. Morgan J. 46
Director, Humble Oil & Ref. Co.

A Box 2180

IV Houston, Texas

Davis, S. F. 34
Chemistry

John Tarleton College
Stephenville, Texas

Davis, William K. (Mr.) 48
Biology Instructor, SWTSC
No. 4 Riverside

II San Marcos, Texas

Day, Willard L. 46
S Box 2252

IV Houston, 1, Texas

Dean, John E. 49

Assoc. Prof. Electrical Eng.

Texas A. & I.

I Kingsville, Texas

*DeFord, Mr. Ronald K. 38F39
S Prof. Univ. of T.

A Univ. Station, Box 1652
IV Austin, 12, Texas

*DeGolyer, Dr. Everette Lee 46F49
Geologist, De Golyer & MacNaughton
F 1000 Continental Bldg.

Dallas, Texas

Delaney, Dr. J. J. 44
Pres. Schreiner Inst.

Schreiner Institute

III Kerrville, Texas

Delaphane, Dr. Walter H. 48
Economics Dept., A. & M.

Box 2245

III College Station, Texas

Dennis, Homer A. 40
Prof, of Math
Lamar Junior College
I Beaumont, Texas

158

The Texas Journal of Science

Denny, Miss Grace 33
1104 Houston Ave.

Crockett, Texas

Dillon, Lawrence S. (Mr.) 48

Zoology Instructor
Biology Dept., A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

*Doak, Dr. Clifton C. 30F33
S Head Biology Dept.

F Box B, F. E., A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

*Dobie, J. Frank 30F35
S Author

702 Park Place
Austin, Texas

’“Dobson, Dr. W. J. 40F47
S Asst. Biology Prof.

A Box D, A. & M. Annex
II College Station, Texas

Doherty, Mr. W. T. 46
S Fidelity Oil & Royalty Co.

A 2010 2nd Nat’l. Bk. Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

*Donaghue, David 44F46
Ft. Worth Nat’l. Bank Bldg.

Ft. Worth, Texas

Donahue, Dr. Roy Luther 39F46
Extension Agronomy, A. & M.

Box 5763

V College Station, Texas

’“Dooley, Dr. Thomas P. 48F49
Head Dept, of Natural Sciences
F Prairie View A. & M.

II Prairie View, Texas

*Dotterweich, Dr. Frank H. 45F49
Director Div. of Engineering
Dept, of Engineering, Texas A. & I.
I Kingsville, Texas

Doughtie, Mr. Venton L. 46
Dept. M'. E.

A Univ. of T. Dept. Mech. Eng.

I Austin, Texas

’“Duncan, Dr. Wallace E. 44F47
Head Dept, of Chemistry, Sul Ross
A Box 848

I Alpine, Texas

’“Dunlap, Dr. A. A. 39F46
Chief Div. of Plant Pathology
F Dept, of Plant Physiology & Path.

II College Station, Texas

'“Dunn, Floyd W. 46F
Dept, of Chem. Univ. of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado

Durkee, Joseph B. 48
Physician & Surgeon
4507 Gaston Ave.

II Dallas, 4, Texas

Durkee, Robert R. 46
3727 Gramercy
Houston, 5, Texas

Dyme, Dr. Harry Chaim 48
Chemist, Foundation App. Research
A Box 2296

I San Antonio, 6, Texas

Dzilsky, Thomas E. 48

Student, U. of H.

c/o The Milwhite Co., Inc.

IV 801 Cotton E’xch. Bldg.

Houston, Texas

Eads, Dr. Richard A. 49
Chemistry, U.C.C.

Chemistry Dept. Univ. of Corpus C.

I Corpus Christi, Texas

Eaves, Charles D. 49
History Prof.

Texas Tech.

III Lubbock, Texas

Ebaugh, Frank W. 39
A 428 S. Patton
I Jacksonville, Texas

Eble, P. W. 46
1033 Cedar Hill
I Dallas, 8, Texas

*Eby, Dr. J. Brian 32F32
S Consulting Geologist
1404 Esperson Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

Eckel, Mr. John E. 46
Vice-Pres. Oil Center Tool Co.

P. O. Box 3091
IV Houston, 1, Texas

Eckles, Dr. Howard H. 49
Marine Fisheries Biologist
450-B Jordon Hall
Stanford, Calif.

Edmonds, A. G. 45

Teacher

Box 4872

I College Station, Texas

‘“Edwards, George L. 44F46
Gen. Mgr. Brownsville-M. Bridge Co.
Box 93

III Brownsville, Texas

Eilers, Mrs. William 49

Chmm. Soc. Sci., San Angelo Col.

2 N. Oakes St.

III San Angelo, Texas

’“Elliott, Dr. Frederick C. 39F47
S Dean & Prof. Texas Dent. Col.

F 1018 Blodgett

II Houston, 4, Texas

Elliott, John E. 46
S 108 W. 15th St.

IV Austin, Texas

Ellis, Mrs. Emma Huck 39
S Office Emp. Karotkin Kur. Co.

P. O. Box 76
II Nordheim, Texas

Ellison, Joseph E. 48
Teacher

Prairie View A. & M.

I Prairie View, Texas

Ellsworth, F. Leslie 49
Student, Museum Worker
Witte Museum

II San Antonio, Texas

Engelhardt, H. T., M. D. 49
Physician
P. O. Box 2180
II Houston, 1, Texas

Engeling, Gus A. 49
Wildlife Botanist, G. F. & O. C.

Box 4836

I College Station, Texas

Membership List

159

Erck, Lisette 49
R. N. & Bacteriologist
1419 North Flores St.

II San Antonio, Texas

*Eskew, Mr. Cletis T. 43F46
Dean of Administration
Biology Dept., Hardin Jr. Col.

II Wichita Falls, Texas

Etheredge, Mr. O. F. 45
Wildlife Biologist, G. F. & O. C.
Box 444

II Alpine, Texas

* Etheridge, Dr. T. H. 44F
Dean, Prof. Education
A Box 359, Sul Ross State College

III Alpine, Texas

*Ettlinger, Dr. H. Joseph 43F46
Prof, of Math

F P. O. Box 1512, Univ. Station
I Austin, 12, Texas

Everts, Arthur A. 47
Pres., Arthur A. Everts Co.

1616 Main St.

I Dallas, 1, Texas

*Ewalt, Dr. Jack 46
Prof. Neuro-Psychiatry
Med. Sch. Univ. of Texas

III Galveston, Texas

!|! Ewing, Dr. Paul L. 46F46
Prof. Pharmacology & Toxicology
A Dept. Pharmacology, Med. Branch
U. of T.

II Galveston, Texas

Fan, Dr. Paul H. 48
Teacher

Geology Dept., U. of H.

IV Houston, 4, Texas

*Fancher, Dr. George H. 44F47
Prof. Pet. Engineering
201-B, P. E. B., U. of T.

I Austin, 12, Texas

'“Felsing, Dr. W. A. 34F
Prof, of Chem. U. of T.

Dept, of Chem., U. of T.

I Austin, , 12, Texas

Fenn, Ivan J. 46
318 Crest wood Dr.

IV Houston, 7, Texas

Ferguson, Alice 49
Asst. Biology Prof.

ETSTC

II Commerce, Texas

Ferguson, Mr. Herschal C. 49
S Consulting Geologist
935 M. Esperson Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

Ferrando, A1 46
942 Milam Bldg.

IV San Antonio, Texas

Fertsch, Dr. Pauline 46
S Instructor

Dept, of Psychology, U. of T.

I Austin, Texas

*Fetzer, Lewis Wm., M. D. F25
Physician

1107 Sarasota Circle
Dallas, Texas

Fiedler, Evelyn A. 49
Science Instructor
Texas Lutheran College

I Seguin, Texas

Finegold, Sidney M. 49
Med. Student
320 Ninth St.

II Galveston, Texas

Fisher, Mr. Gordon H. 46
Chief Pet. Eng. Gulf Oil
P. O. Drawer 1290
IV Ft. Worth, Texas

Fitzgerald, Dr. Norman D. 46

Oil Producer

602 Riverside Blvd.

IV Abilene, Texas

Flesh, David 46
Geologist & Engineer
P. O. Box 491
IV Jefferson, Texas

Fletcher, Henry T. 46
Cattle Breeder
II Marfa, Texas

*Fletcher, Herbert H. 39F40
S Printer & Bookstore Operator
403-05 Fannin at Preston
Houston, Texas

*Fletcher, Dr. Robert K. 35
Retired

Route 1, Box 302

II Garland, Texas

*Floyd, L. P. 38F38
5301 T. C., North Texas Teachers
I Denton, Texas

Flury, Alvin 48
Student, Univ. of Texas
514 Joan of Arc

III Austin, Texas

Focht, John A. 46
Univ. Station
I Austin, Texas

Folk, Mr. Stewart H. 48
Geologist. DeGolyer & MacNaughton
c-o Petroleos Mexicanos
Av. Juarez, 95, Of. No. 208
Mexico, D. F., Mexico

Follett, Dr. W. I. 49
Acting Curator of Fishes
Golden Gate Park
San Francisco 18, Calif.

Ford, Albert L. 49
Box 3686, T.S.C.W. Station
I Denton, Texas

Ford, Mr. David O. 48

Inventor

201 Dullnig Ct.

I San Antonio, 10, Texas

Forgeron, H. S. 46
S P. O. Box 1575

I Midland, Texas

Forsyth, F. Howard (Dr.) 49

Prof, of Economics
Trinity Univ.

Ill San Antonio, Texas

Forsyth, Dr. John W. 47
Asst. Prof. Biology
A Biology Dept., TCU

II Ft. Worth, Texas

160

The Texas Journal of Science

Franks, Robert M. 46
S Pet. Geologist
A P. O. Box 970

II Alice, Texas

’"Freeman, Dr. W. W. 44F
Prof. & Dir. Visual Aid
Box 680

III Commerce, Texas

Frey, Dr. C. Elmer 39
Psy., Oak PL Sanitarium
A 2204 Baldwin

III Houston, Texas

’’’Fuller, Mr. Frederick D. 30F30
Supr. Feed Inspectors
F 200 S. Congress Ave.

II Bryan, Texas

Fulton, Dr. MacDonald 49
Assoc. Prof, of Bacteriology
A 3801 St. Bernard St.

II Houston, 4, Texas

Furr, Mr. R. J. 47
Director, Texas Safety Service
808 N. Marsalis
I Dallas, 8, Texas

’’’Gaines, Newton 33F33
Prof, of Physics
Dept, of Physics, TCU

I Ft. Worth, Texas

Gardner, Edgar J. (Mr.) 46
Consulting Geo.

820 Staley Bldg.

IV Wichita Falls, Texas

Gardner, Dr. Frank J. 46
Chief Geologist, Reinhart Oil News
P. O. Box 1208
IV Dallas, Texas

*Gaupp, Dr. Frederick E. 48F48
Asst. Prof. History & Govt.

Box 362, S. U. Station

III Georgtown, Texas

Gee, Dr. Lynn L. 49
Prof. Bacteriology
Box 4708

II College Station, Texas

’"George, William O. F46
Geologist

F 4004 Duval St.

IV Austin, Texas

Gerundo, Michele (Dr. 1 48
Pathologist & Microbiologist
1305 Broadway
II Lubbock, Texas

’"Getzendaner, F. M. 30F36
S Pet. Geologist

I Yellville, Arkansas

»

Gibson, J. E. 49
Retired Teacher
307 Hawthorne
Houston, 6, Texas

*Gidley, William F. 32F32
Pharmist
3105 Grooms St.

II Austin, Texas

Gilliam, R. A. 47
1123 Cedar Hill Ave.

Dallas, 8, Texas

Gilmore, Kathleen K. 46
5818 Cedar Springs
IV Dallas, Texas

’"Gingrich, Dr. Wendel D. 35F36
Prof. Bacteriology
F Univ. of Texas M'ed. Col.

II Galveston, Texas

Glass, Mr. J. T. 44
Instructor, Vocational Ag.

II Box 527, Athens, Texas

Glazener, Mr. W. C. 47
Director, Wildlife Res.

920 E. 53rd
II Austin, Texas

”’Glick, Perry A. 39F40
Asst. Entomologist
Box 1218

II Waco, Texas

Glick, Walter R. 49
Head, Soc. Sci. Div.

Texas Wesleyan College

III Ft. Worth, Texas

Glimp, Thomas Jr. 47
Box 517
Menard, Texas

’"Godsey, John T., Sr. 44F
Teacher

Science Dept., Hillsboro Jr. Col.

II Hillsboro, Texas

Goedecke, Otto 49
S Cotton Merchant
II Hallettsville, Texas

’"Goldich, Dr. Samuel S. 39F40
205 Pillsbury Hall, Univ. Minn.

IV Minneapolis, 14, Minnesota

Goodman, Mrs. J. M. 38
Biology Teacher
811 E. 27th
II Bryan, Texas

’"Goodwin, Dr. R. C. 35F41
Head Dept. Chem., Dean Arts
& Sci.

A Chem. Dept. Texas Tech.

I Lubbock, Texas

Gorirossi, Flora 49
Research Asst.

401 N. Boulevard

II Galveston, Texas

Gott, Preston F. 49
Asst. Prof. Physics
Dept, of Physics, Texas Tech
I Lubbock, Texas

Grace, Sister Mary of 45
Teacher

Our Lady of the Lake College
San Antonio, '7, Texas

Graham, Mr. John F. 39
Head Dept. Mining & Metallurgy
College of Mines

I El Paso, Texas

Gravett, Howard G. 48
Asst. Prof, of Zoology
Box 145

II College Station, Texas

Gray, Dr. George R. 46
S Mgr. Gulf Coast Lab., Nat’l. Lead
6732 Sylvan Rd.

IV Houston, 3, Texas

Membership List

161

*Gray, Mr. James A. 42F46
Animal Husbandman
Texas Extension Ser., Courthouse
V San Angelo, Texas

Gregoria, Sister Mary 38
Teacher

Our Lady of the Lake College
T San Antonio, 7, Texas

*Greulach, Dr. Victor A. 41F41
Dept, of Botany
IJniv. of N. Carolina
Chapel Hill, N. C.

Grusendorf, A. A. 49
208 W. Wood St.

San Marcos, Texas

Gruy, H. J. 46
Pet. & Geo. Engineer
6026 Kenwood Ave.

I Dallas, Texas

Guido, Miss Virginia 49

Lab. Asst. Southwest Research Inst.

1510 W. Martin St.

II San Antonio, Texas

*Gunter, Gordon 36F40
Marine Biologist
Institute of Marine Sci., U of T
I Port Aransas, Texas

Gustafson, Mr. Arthur G. 44
Physics Teacher
710 Jefferson Ave.

I Seguin, Texas

Gutierrez, Dr. Gabriel V. 48
S Botanist

406 International House, Univ. of
Calif.

Berkeley, 4, Calif.

*Hager, Dilsworth S. 44F48
S Oil Geologist & Oil Producer
932 Liberty Bank Bldg.

IV Dallas, Texas

Hagy, George W. 49
Student, Teacher
Biology Bldg. U. of T.

II Austin, Texas

Hakes, Mr. W. R. 47
Teacher, Brownsville Ind. Sch. Dist.
P. O. Box 1909
I Brownsville, Texas

Halbouty, Mr. Michel T. 46
S Consulting Geo. & Pet. Engineer
A 731 Shell Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

Hall, Robert W. 49
Engineer
P. O. Box 1486
I Wichita Falls, Texas

Hamilton, Mr. Kenneth H.

Geologist, Union Oil of Calif.

720 Wilson Bldg.

IV Corpus Christi, Texas

Hamman, Mr. John Jr. 47
S Pres., Hamman Oil & Ref. C’o.

A 2131 San Felipe Rd.

IV Houston, 19, Texas

*Hammond, Mr. T. M. 39F46
Prof, of Physics
F Schreiner Institute
I Kerrville, Texas

^Hampton, H. E. 40F46
Instructor in Soils
Agronomy Dept. A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Hancock, Mr. J. M. 46
Pet. Geologist, Independent
A Box 68

IV Beeville, Texas

Harden, Lyn L. 46
Dist. Geologist
201 Staley Bldg.

Wichita Falls, Texas

Harding, John E. 49
Asst. Prof. Eco. & Mgt.

2610 21st St.

III Lubbock, Texas

*Hardt, Dr. Henry B. 44F47
Prof, of Chem. & Head Dept.

T. C. U.

I Ft. Worth, Texas

^Harris, Dr. Benjamin B. 29F30
Biologist, NTSTC Dean
T. C. Station, 415 Normal Ave.

V Denton, Texas

Harris, Dr. Joseph P. Jr. 46
Asst. Prof. Biology, S.M.U.

Biology Dept., S.M.U.

II Dallas, Texas

Harris, R. Merrill 49
S Consulting Geologist
P. O. Box No. 2385

I Jackson, Miss.

Hartwez, Dr. Norman 49
Curator, Div. of Reptiles *and Amphi.
Univ. of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Hatfield, Miss Sadie 48

Ext. Specialist, Landscape Gar.

Extension Bldg., A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Hattox, Fay 49

Instructor, Foods & Nutrition

Texas Tech.

II Lubbock, Texas

Hazelwood, Dr. Emmett A. 48
Teacher, Texas Tech.

3218-20th St.

I Lubbock, Texas

* Heaps, Dr. C. W. 34F34
Prof. Physics

F 235 Portland, Rice Institute

I Houston, Texas

Hedeen, Mr. Robert A. 49
Grad. Student & Research Asst.

710 W. 22nd St.

II Austin, Texas

*Hedgpeth, Joel W. 45F46
Marine Biologist
Inst, of Marine Sci., U. of T.

II Port Aransas, Texas

Hedrick, Mr. O. F. 46
S Geologist, Pech Oil Co.

800 W. Michigan

IV Midland, Texas

*Hefley, Dr. Harold M. 40F47
Instructor in Zoology
Zoology Dept., Univ. of Ark,

IT Fayetteville, Arkansas

162

The Texas Journal of Science

Helwig, Mr. William F. 39
S Assoc. Prof. Electrical Eng.

U. of T., E. 147

I Austin, Texas

Herald, Frank A. (Mr.) 46
S Geo. & Research Science
1515 Preston Ave.

IV Austin, Texas

Henquet, Roger 49

Ex. Vice-Pres. & Gen. Mgr.

Schlumberger Well Sur. Corp.

P. O. Box 2175
IV Houston, 1, Texas

Herring, Mr. L. B. 46
Vice-Pres. & Mgr.,- Oil & Gas. Div.
A P. 0. Box 2629
IV Houston, Texas

Herrmann, Jack A. 49
Grad. Student
1410 South Congress

II Austin, Texas

Herzog, Dr. Gerhard 49
S Director of Research, Texas Co.

P. O. Box 425
IV Bellaire, Texas

Hester, George C. 36
Prof. Govt.

S. U. Station

III Georgetown, Texas

*Heuse, Dr. E. O. F33
Head of Chem. Dept.

S.M.U., 3421 U. Blvd.

I Dallas, Texas

*Hewatt, Dr. Willis 33F40
Biology Prof.

TCU

II Ft. Worth, 9, Texas

Higdon, Mr. W. Dain 49
Asst. Prof. Biology
Ashby St.

II San Antonio, Texas

*Hildebrand, Dr. Earl Martin 48F49
Assoc. Prof, of Plant Pathology
F P. O. Box 4445
II College Station, Texas

Hiler, Mr. Irwin D. 46
Printer-Lithographer
Box 271

I Abilene, Texas

Hinckley, L. C. 46
Assoc. Prof, of Science
Sul Ross St. College
V Alpine, Texas

* Hodges, Mr. H. A. 31F37
Director Edinburg Jr. C.

P. O. Box 751
I Edinburg, Texas

Holland, Mary Loreen 46
S 2570 No. McGregor Dr.

IV Houston, Texas

Hollingsworth, Mr. A. K. 48
S Teacher, Chemistry
A Station A, Box 533
I Abilene, Texas

Hollingsworth, Mr. R. V. 46
Geologist, Paleontological Lab.

A P. O. Box 51
IV Midland, Texas

Holm, Dr. Hans Martin 49
Asst. Prof. Philosophy
A Box 22, McMurry College
III Abilene, Texas

Holzapfel, Dr. Ruth A. 44
Instructor, Head Div. Life Sciences
A Hardin College
II Wichita Falls, Texas

Hooks, Mrs. J. L. 37
1849 Calder Ave.

Beaumont, Texas

Hopkins, Sewell 49
T.C.U.

II Fort Worth, Texas

*Horvitz, Dr. Leo 44F48
Pet. Geochemist, Horvitz Research
A 3217 Milam

I Houston, 6, Texas

Hosington, Pauline 49
Asst. Prof. Biology
Box 674, Tarleton Station

II Stephenville, Texas

Hoxsey, H. M. 48
Naturapathic Physician
4507 Gaston Ave.

II Dallas, 4, Texas

*Hubbs, Dr. Carl L. 40F46
Prof, of Biology

F Box 109, Scripps Inst. Oceanogra

II LaJolla, Calif.

Hudnall, J. S. 46

Geologist

Box 988

IV Tyler, Texas

*Hudspeth, Mr. Jack C. 44F49
Pub. Div., Steck Co.

F Box 16
I Austin, Texas

*Huff, Dr. Z. T. 39F41
Dean of College
Howard Payne College .

III Brownwood, Texas

Huffman, Dr. Max N. 48
Prof. Biochemistry
A 2211 Oak Lawn Ave.

I Dallas, 4, Texas

Hughes, Mr. W. L. 38
Prof. Biology

A Box 296, North Texas Agric.

II Arlington, Texas

Hughes, Mr. William F. 38
Agricultural Economist
711 S. Coulter Dr.

V Bryan, Texas

Hull, Mr. Arthur M. 48
Dist. Geologist, U. S. Army Corp
Eng.

604-C Santa Fe Bldg.

IV Galveston, Texas

Hunt, George R. 46

Asst. Prof. Science

Sul Ross St. Teachers Col.

I Alpine, Texas

Hurst, Mrs. Fannie Mae 49
Teacher, Baylor Univ.

II Axtell, Texas

Membership List

163

Hurst, Mrs. Minor A. 49
5219 Young St.

V Houston, 19, Texas

Hyde, Mr. C. E. 46
Geologist & Oil Producer
1715 W. T. Waggoner Bldg.

IY Ft. Worth, 2, Texas

*Irons, Dr. J. V. 38F46
Asst. Dir. of Laboratories
1608 E. Ave.

II Austin, Texas

Ivy, Edward E. 47
Box 834

College Station, Texas

*Ivy, John 39F
1124 Neils Esperson Bldg.

Houston, Texas

Jackson, Dr.' Doyle D. 49
Prof. Edu. Psychology
Box 61, Tech Station

III Lubbock, Texas

Jackson, Mr. R. E. 37
Pres., East Texas Big Thicket Assn ,
A P. O. Box 64
III Silsbee, Texas

:|!Jakkula, Dr. A. A. 45F46
Exec. Director, Tex. A & M Research
A Research Foundation, F. E. Box 44
I College Station, Texas

* James, Mr. William Alonzo 29F32
S Ball High Sch. Prin., Emeritus
A 2327 Ave. M.

I Galveston, Texas

Jameson, David L. 48
Student, Teaching Fellow
c/o Zoology Dept., U. of T.

II Austin, Texas

Japhet, W. E. 49
S Pres., Southern Blue Print
Drawer 2643

I Houston, 1, Texas

Johnson, Mrs. Bessie K. 35
611 N. W. Levee St.

III Brownsville, Texas

Johnson, J. C. 46

Soil Conservation
2110 Pearl

II Austin, 21, Texas

Johnston, Mr. George L. 42
Publisher, Transportation Press
P. O. Box 381
II Dallas, Texas

Johnston, Dr. Ola 44
Prof. Biology, NTSC
A 1801 W. Mulberry
II Denton, Texas

Jolley, Durward N. 46
Consulting Geologist
230 Evans Ave.

IV San Antonio, 9, Texas

=;:Jones, Dr. Clifford B. 39F
Pres, of Texas Tech., Emeritus
3501 19th St.

Lubbock, Texas

Jones, Mr. Herman T. 48
Instructor in Biology
Prairie View A., & M.

JI Prairie View, Texas

* J ones. Dr. Luther G. 44F49
Prof. Agronomy

F Box 1588

II College Station, Texas

Jones, Mr. Marvin R. 49
Engineer ,Oil Center Tool Co.

P. O. Box 3091
I Houston, Texas

* Jones, W. Goodrich 33F35
Box 1585, 326 N. 14th St.

Waco, Texas

Jones, Dr. W. Norton 49
Prof, of Chem. & Head Dept.

758 Amarillo St.

I Abilene, Texas

Jones, Walter B. 49
S State Geologist

Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Judson, Sidney A. 34
Consulting Oil Geologist
3783 Carlon St.

IV Houston, 5, Texas

Keating, Mr. Thomas W. 46
S Drilling Research Engineer
Box 3022

IV Houston, 1, Texas

Keith, John W. 46
S Chemist
2225 Pecos

II Beaumont, Texas

Keith, Lillian 37
Box 1017

Crystal City, Texas

Kelsay, Miss June 47
Instructor

Box 5647, T. C. Station
II Denton, Texas

*Kemp, Mrs. Augusta Hasslock 30F38
F Box 626
IV Seymour, Texas

*Kemp, Hardy A., M. D. 35F38
Director of Grad. Studies
F Baylor Univ. Med. College
II Houston, Texas

Kenyan, Mrs. Frances M. G. 49
Asst. Prof. Bio. Science
UCC

II Corpus, Christi, Texas

:|!Kerbow, Dr. A. L. 44F46
Head, College of Ed., U. of H.

A 3220 Rice Blvd.

III Houston, Texas

Kern, Mr. Jack C., Jr. 46
Geophysical Supr. Standard Oil
Co. of Texas
3815 Greenbrier Dr.

IV Dallas, Texas

Key, Dr. Sam N. Jr. 49
Eye Surgeon

505 Capital Nat’l. Bank Bldg.
Austin, Texas

Key, Dr. Sam N. Sr.

Eye Surgeon

505 Capital Nat’l. Bank Bldg.
Austin, Texas

Kiester, Mr. Robert S. 49
Instructor

1908 Carroll Dr., Apt. 1
IV Houston, 4, Texas

164

The Texas Journal of Science

*Killough, D. T. (Mr.) 34F34

A Dept, of Agronomy, Box 32, A.&M.

II College Station, Texas

Kirby, Grady 47
1521 Esperson Bldg.

Houston, Texas

Kinchen, Oscar A. 49
History Prof.

Tech Station

III Lubbock, Texas

King, R. W. 49

Head of Biology Dept., S. A. Pub.
Sch

71 East 19th St.

II San Angelo, Texas

Kirkland, Mrs. Forrest 46
911 S. Van Buren
Dallas, 8, Texas

*Kirn, Albert J. 30F38
S Drawer 7

IV Somerset, Texas

Kister, Tom L. 49
Asst. Lab. Instructor
U. of H.

Houston, Texas

*KIaus, Hellmut 46F48
S Box 1617 ;

IV Lttbbock, Texas

Klett, Miss Mamie 48
Biology Dept., Baylor
A 2417 Columbus St.

II Waco, Texas

Knapp, Mr. Frank T. 48

Asst. Prof, of Fisheries, A. & M.

Box 254 F. E.

V College Station, Texas

S Knox, T. K. 46
IV Maypearl, Texas

Koch, Miss Lina Clara 49
History Teacher

III 423 S. Alamo St.,

San Antonio, Texas

Koenig, J. B. 47
206 East Wall
Midland, Texas

*Kornfeld, Joseph Alton 46F47
Engineer, Reservoir, Sohio Pet. Co.
2300 First Nat’l. Bk. Bldg.

I Oklahoma City, Okla.

Kraushaar, William F. 41
President

Texas Lutheran College
III Seguin, Texas

Krieger, Mr. Alex Dony 44
Archaeologist

A Anthropology Dept., U. of T.

Ill Austin, Texas

*Kuehne, Dr. J. M. 29F29
Prof, of Physics
Univ. Station, U. of T.

I Austin, Texas

LaBrier, Dr. George W. 49
Owner & Instructor, C. C. Bus. Col.
306 Lawrence St.

HI Corpus Christi, Texas

:i!LaMotte, Dr. Charles 30F36
Professor of Biology
A Box 4783, Biology Dept., A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Langhammer, E, G. 48
Texas Filter Co., Inc.

300 Blum, P. O. Box 367
San Antonio, 6, Texas

Larson, Mr. Lennart V. 43
Prof, of Law
S. M. U., Law School
I Dallas, Texas

LaRue, J. E. 47
P. O. Box 2180
Humble Bldg.

Houston, Texas

LaRue, Wilton W. 47
Plymouth Oil Co.

Sinton, Texas

*Lay, Mr. Daniel W. 44F47
Wildlife Biologist, G. F. & O. C.
Box 609

V Silsbee, Texas

*Leake, Dr. Chauncey D. 42F46
S Exec. Vice-President
F 1000 Strand

III Galveston, Texas

Leasure, John Hicks 44
Florist, Cactus Acres
4431 Montana Ave.

Ill El Paso, Texas

*Lee, Addison 39F46
Dept. Botany & Bacteriology
1703 W. 44th St.

Austin, Texas

Lee, Mr. Sidney 46
Director Dallas Lab.

2500 South Ervay
I Dallas, 1, Texas

Lee, Sister Stanilaus 49
High Sch. Science Teacher
4701 Broadway

I San Antonio, Texas

Leidigh, Arthur H. 49
Agronomy Prof.

Texas Tech
Lubbock, Texas

Leifeste, Mr. Sam 49
Asst. Prof. Marketing
Texas Tech., Marketing & Sec. Ad.
Ill Lubbock, Texas

Leonard, Archie L. 49
Asst. Prof.

Ag. Eco., Texas Tech

II Lubbock, Texas

*Leonardon, Mr. E. G. 43F46
Director Schlumberger Well Sur.
Corp.

P. O. Box 2175, 2720 Leeland Ave.
I Houston, Texas

*LeVesconte, Dr. Amy 37F
Prof, of Chemistry
F Mary Hardin Baylor Univ.

I Belton, Texas

Levett, Frank W. 49

Inst. Engr. Drawing & Sur.

1801 Univ. Blvd.

1 Abilene, Texas

Membership List

16$

Lewis, Miss Genelia E'. 39

Chem. Teacher, TSCW
627 Oakland
4 Denton, Texas

Lewis, Hosea H. 47
1241 Washington Blvd.

Abilene, Texas

*Lewis, Mr. James O. 46F48
Pet. Consultant
1552 Mellie Esperson Bldg'.

IV Houston, Texas

Lewis, Dr. S. R. 49
Surgical Resident

John Sealy Hospital, Dept, of Sur.
II Galveston, Texas

*Lindsay, J. D. 45F47
Professor

Dept, of Chem. Eng.

College Station, Texas

Lindsay, John W. 49

Instructor

3313 30th St.

I Lubbock, Texas

Little, Dr. Robert N. 47
Prof. Physics

A Physics Dept., P. B. 304, U. of T.

I Austin, Texas

* Little, V. A.

Prof, of Entomology 44F47
A. & M. College

II College Station, Texas

Lockwood, Mr. Mason G. 49

S Engineering, Consulting

904 Union Nat’l. Bank Bldg.

I Houston, Texas

*Loefer, Dr. John B. 48
Chief Biologist, Found. App. Res.
Foundation of Applied Research,

P. O. Box 2296

II San Antonio, Texas

Lohse, Edgar A. 48
Instructor, U. of H.

3000 Griggs Rd.

IV Houston, Texas

Lokey, Dr. Clarence Walters 42
Supt. Dept, of Spanish Speaking
& Indian Work in S’West
230 E. Travis St.

III San Antonio, 5, Texas

Lonsdale, John T. 48
Geologist

Bureau of Eco. Geology, U. of T.

V Austin, Texas

Loose, William E. 49
S Atty. at Law, Texas Co.

2132 Rice Blvd.

V Houston, Texas

Lott, Miss Mary Harriet 48
Research Chemist, S. W. Med. Col.
A 2211 Oak Lawn
I Dallas, 4, Texas

Louden, Mr. H. W. 46
Mgr. Field Ser. Eng. Dept.

700 City Nat’l. Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

Love, Perry R. 47
Box 450
Yoakum, Texas

Lowman, Sheppard 47
Box 2099
Houston, Texas

Lozo, Dr. Frank E. Jr. 43
Geologist, Shell Oil
3737 Bellaire Blvd.

IV Houston, 5, Texas

*Ludeman, Miss Helen A. 39F46
S Prof, of Chemistry
A Box 2475, T. S. C. W.

I Denton, Teas

*Luska, Dr. Frank E. 45F48
Acting Head Dept. Soc.

905 Walnut St.

III Georgetown, Texas

*Lynch, S. A. 44F46
S Head Dept. Geology

Dept, of Geology,. A. & M.

IV College Station, Texas

Maley, W. A. 47
2235 M’aroneal
Houston, 5, Texas

Malmberg, Myrtle E. 49

Registered Nurse

Box 654, A. & I. College

II Kingsville, Texas

Mangrum, James F. 46
Instructor of Zoology
P. O. Box 1131

II College Station, Texas

Manuel, Dr. Herschel T. 47
Prof. Ed. Psychology
Univ. of Texas

III Austin, Texas

Marlow, Dr. H. W. 48
Associate Prof. Biochem.

2211 Oaklawn

I Dallas, 4, Texas

Marr, Mr. John C. 49
Marine Fisheries Biologist
A 450-B Jordon Hall

II Stanford, Calif.

Marshall, Dr. Madison L. 47
Prof, of Chemistry
A TSCW 3654

I Denton, Texas

*Marsteller, Dr. R. P. 35F40
Vet. Med. & Surgery
Veterinary Hospital 103

II College Station, Texas

Martin, Dail 42

Dept, of Entomology

Dept, of Entomology, A. & M.

College Station, Texas

*Mason, Mr. Shirley L. 46F48
S Geologist

1801 Bolsover Rd.

IV Houston, Texas

Maspero, Miss Barbara 49
Allergy & Mycology
311 Glen wood Ct.

II San Antonio, 10, Texas

*Mathews, A. A. L. 43F49
S 3801 St. Bernard St.

IV Houston, 4, Texas

Matthews, Mr. R. D. 38
S Salesman, Central Scientific Co.
4221 Amherst
I Dallas, 5, Texas

166

The Texas Journal of Science

Maxwell, Mr. Ross A. 46
Supt., Big Bend Nat’l. Park
Big Bend Nat’l Park
IV Marathon, Texas

May, Miss Lida B. 44
Instructor, Texas Tech.

Texas Tech College

I Lubbock, Texas

Mayfield, William I. 46
S 1800 Grace

IV Wichita Falls, Texas

M'ayhall, Mrs. Mildred P. 34
Instructor in Anthropology
1906 Raleigh

II Austin, Texas

Mays, Fleming L. 49
S Executive Secretary
1810 Pet. Bldg.

V Houston, Texas

Mebane, Robert Duff 47
914 Milam Bldg.

San Antonio, Texas

Medlen, Mr. A. B. 47
Biology Dept., A. & M.

Biology Dept. A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Melton, R. B. 49

Economics Dept., N. T. S. T. C.

Box 6132, T. C'. Station

III Denton, Texas

Menzel, Mr. R. Winston 49
Biology Research Lab.

A Texas A. & M'. Research Foundation
II College Station, Texas

Merkle, Mrs. John 49
Housewife

Biology Dept., A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Merkle, Dr. John 49
Asst. Prof. Biology
A Biology Dept., A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Merkt, Ernest E. 46
P. O. Drawer 1290

IV Ft. Worth, 1, Texas

:!!Merrymon, William W. (Dr.) 48F49
Assoc. Prof. Physics
F 2213-24th St.

I Lubbock, Texas

Michie, Mrs. J. N. 45
Texas Tech College

I Lubbock, Texas

""Michie, James Newton 34F31
Prof. & Head Math. Dept.

Dept, of Math, Texas Tech.

Box 91

T Lubbock, Texas

Micks, Don W. 49

Asst. Prof. Prev. Med.

Dept, of Prev. Med. & Pub. Hlth.

II Galveston, Texas

Mikus, Dr. F. F. 49
Assoc. Prof. Chem.

Chem. Dept. Texas A. & I.

I Kingsville, Texas

Miller, Mr. Buford 47
Geologist, Melben Oil Co.

A 2305 Esperson Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

Miller, C. C. 47
3448 Aransas St.

Corpus Christi, Texas

Miller, Clay E., Jr. 49
Student, U. of T.

II Ft. Davis, Texas

Miller, Dr. E. L. 49
Head & Prof. Biology
A S. F. A. S. T. C.

II Nacogdoches, Texas

Miller, L. L. 38
Dept, of Physics
NTSTC
Denton, Texas

Milliff, Dr. J. H. 45

Prof. & Head Dept. Veterinary

Anatomy

Box 212 F. E.

II College Station, Texas

*Milligan, Dr. W. O. 38F41
Assoc. Prof. Chemistry
A P. O. Box 1892

I Houston, Texas

Milstead, Mr. W. W. 49
Grad. Student, U. of T.

2814 N. Guadalupe

II Austin, Texas

*Miner, Mrs. Edna W. 37F48
Biology Teacher
2206 Brun St.

II Houston, Texas

Mitchell, Mr. Robert B. 47
Consulting Geologist & Eng.
2218 City Nat’l. Bk. Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

*Mogford, Joseph S. 42F47
Dept, of Agronomy, A. & M.
College Station, Texas

*Monning, Mr. Oscar E'. 39F49
S Vice-Pres., Monning Dry Goods
F 1010 M’orningside Dr.

I Ft. Worth, 3, Texas

Montgomery, Mr. J. C. 47
Chief Geo. & Pet. Eng., Indiola
A 3204 Gulf Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

*Moody, Mr. Clarence L. 49F49
S Div. Geologist, Ohio Oil Co.

F Ohio Oil Co.

IV Shreveport, Louisiana

*Moore, Miss Elizabeth J. 39F46
Research Assoc.

A Box 1683, Univ. Station

II Austin, 12, Texas

Moore, Mr. Fred H. 49

Geologist, Magnolia Pet. Co.

3023 Purdue
IV Dallas, 5, Texas

Moore, Joe L. 47

Drawer 1391, Honolulu Oil C’orp.

Midland, Texas

Membership List

167

"'Moore, Dr. Robert M. 46F48
S Prof. Surgery & Chmn. Dept. Sur.
Med. Sch. Univ. of Texas
Galveston, Texas

Morales, Apolonio 49
Technician, Found. App. Research
1035 San Francisco St.

I San Antonio, Texas

"'Morgan, Dr. Joseph 46F46
Prof. Physics
A Phy. Dept., T. C. U.

I Ft. Worth, Texas

"'Morris, Dr. Kelso B. 45F46
S Assoc. Prof. Chemistry
A Dept, of Chem. Howard Univ.

I Washington, 2, D. C.

Morris, Louis H. 47
Consulting Geologist
McBurnett Bldg.

San Angelo, Texas

"'Morrow, Miss Marie B. 30F
Asst. Prof. Dept. Bot. & Bact.

F 1305 W. 22nd St.

II Austin, Texas

*Morse, Roy R. 46
S Shell Oil Co.

Box 2099

IV Houston, Texas

M'oser, Dr. Stella 49
Physician

209% San Antonio St.

II New Braunfels, Texas

"'Mortensen, Mr. E. 30F33
Horticulturist

F Ag. Exp. Sta. Sub. Sta. 19

II Winter-Haven, Texas

Morton, Dr. Ohland 48
Principal, Edinburg High Sch.

A Edinburg High School

III Edinburg, Texas

Moss, Mr. F. P. 44
Director of Guidance
Schreiner Institute
II Kerrville, Texas

*Mount, Mr. A. W. 45F46
S Div. Main. Super., S.W.Bell Tele.
A 4326 Birchman St.

I Ft. Worth, 7, Texas

Mueller, Margaret 49

Housewife

438 Haggin St.

II San Antonio, Texas

*Mulaik, Mr. Stanley B. 33F40
Biology Instructor
Univ. of Utah

II Salt Lake City, 1, Utah

"'Mullings, Marcus Evans 46F46
Prof, of Math.

Station A

I Abilene, Texas

Murphy, Clifford 49
Asst. Prof. Biology
Bio. Dept., T. C. U.

II Ft. Worth, Texas

Murray, William J. Jr. 49
Chmn., R. R. Commission
A Tribune Bldg.

V Austin, Texas

Myers, Ernest L. 47
S Consulting Engineer
2204 Tower Pet. Bldg.

Dallas, 1, Texas

Myers, Mr. J. Sutton 44
S General Contractor
Rt. 2, Box 388
IV Brownsville, Texas

McAlister, James E. 48
Teacher
Boles Home
Quinlan, Texas

McAmis, Ava J. 46F49
Assoc. Prof, of Chemistry
202 East Park Ave.

I San Antonio, Texas

"'McBryde, Dr. J. B. 44F46
Biology Teacher
615 W. Sycamore St.

II Denton, Texas

McCall, Miss Carol 47
Biology Instructor

A Box 140, Biology Dept., Baylor U.

II Waco, Texas

*McCart, William Larrey (Mr.) 37F47
Entomologist, Teacher
A 1309 St. Louis Ave.

II Ft. Worth, 2, Texas

McClintock, Haskell 49
Asst. Prof, of Biology
Texas Wesleyan College
II Ft. Worth, Texas

"'McCollum, Burton 34F34
Geophysicist
2949 Chevy Chase Dr.

I Houston, 19, Texas

"'McConnell, Dr. W. J. 36F40
President, NTSTC
F T. C. Station
Denton, Texas

McCoy, Mr. George Y. 47
Pet. Consultant
A Empire Bank Bldg.

IV Dallas, 1, Texas

McCully, Mr. Wayne G. 48

Asst. Field Leader, Agri. Expt. S.

Box 5325

V College Station, Texas

"'McDonald, Dr. Frank 46F47
Prof. Physics & Chmn. Dept.

F Physics Dept., S. M. U.

I Dallas, Texas

McDonald, Maude 48
Asst. Mgr. Bureau
Texas Emp. Comm., Box 432
Pt. Arthur, Texas

"'McGavock, William C. (Dr.) 40F41
Chem. Prof.

1702 Waverly Ave.

I San Antonio, Texas

"'McGregor, Stuart 38F40
S Editorial Writer, Dallas News
4557 Belclaire Ave.

Dallas, Texas

M'cllhenny, E. A. 38
Pres. Mcllhenny Co.

II Avery Island, La.

168

The Texas Journal of Science

* McKay, Jack M. M. D. 45F46
Physician & Surgeon
110 E. Pecon St.

II Gainesville, Texas

McKinney, Miss Cornelia 35
1527 Ave. J.

Huntsville, Texas

McLeod, Claude A. 49

Biology Teacher

Sam Houston State College

II Huntsville, Texas

McMillan, Mr. E. A. 49
Teacher Alpine Pub. Sch.

Box 502

III Alpine, Texas

McNeese, James 49
Public School Teacher
Box 14

I Port Aransas, Texas

Neeley, Coleman L. 49
Electrical Engineer
206 Panama
San Antonio, Texas

Nelson, George F. 48
1501 Lindberg, Sta. D.

Baytown, Texas

Nelson, Dr. L. A. 45
Physician
4105 Live Oak
I Dallas, Texas

Nelson, Sherman 49
S Owner, Nelson Tie Co.

P. O. Box 228

IV Seguin, Texas

Neuman, Leonard J. 48
Consulting Engineer
943 M. Esperson Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

^Neville, Wm., Jr. 39F
Assoc. Prof. Pharmacy
1710 W. 6th St.

I - Austin, Texas

Niermon, Dr. John L. 35
Director Grad. Studies
Texas A. & I.

I Kingsville, Texas

Noake, Mr. Joe A. 49
Biological Research & Breeding
Earthworms

1842 W. Mistletoe Ave.

II San Antonio, Texas

Normand, Emma 39
Teacher, SHSTC
II Huntsville, Texas

O’Banion, E. B. 48
Chmn. Chem. Dept.

Prairie View A. & M.

I Prairie View, Texas

:!!0’Byrne, Sister Michael Edward
32F35

Chmn. Physical Sciences
A Incarnate Word College
I San Antonio, Texas

Ofield, William J. 49

Instructor

216 Hunt St.

IV Houston, Texas

Olcott, Perry 47
Box 2180
Houston, Texas

Oliphant, Elizabeth Ann 45
Asst. Prof. Math
Texas A. & I.

I Kingsville, Texas

^Oliver, Dr. Clarence P. 48
Zoology Prof.

F Dept, of Zoology, U. of T.

V Austin, Texas

O’Neil, Mrs. Norah S. 34
Asst. Biology Prof., ETSTC
A 1311 Bonham St.

II Commerce, Texas

*Oppe, Miss Greta 29F31
S Head Science Dept.

F 1609 Ave. K.

I Galveston, Texas

Orman, Mr. Freeman L. Jr. 46
Geologist, Republic Nat’l. Gas Co.
A Box 1755
IV Dallas, 1, Texas

Orr, Mary Faith 49
Research Assistant
U. of T. Med. Branch

II Galveston, Texas

*Osterhoudt, Walter 46F48
S P. O. Drawer 2100
IV Houston, Texas

Overall, Dr. John Wayne 45
Teacher of Physics, A. & M.

A 611 South Baker Ave.

I Bryan, Texas

*Owen, Ed Wesley 30F30
Geologist, L. W. Wentz (Oil Div.)
532 Milam Bldg.

IV San Antonio, 5, Texas

Owen, Dr. May 47
Pathologist, Terrell’s Lab.

Box 1719

I Fort Worth, Texas

*Paine, L. S. (Mr.) 39F46
S Assoc. Prof. Agric. Eco.

Box 4431

IT College Station, Texas

Parencia, Charles R., Jr, 47
Box 1218
Waco, Texas

Parker, Dr. Grady P. 47
Education Dept. A. & M.

Box 226

III College Station, Texas

Parker, Travis J. 47
Assoc. Prof. Geology
Geology Dept., A. & M.

IV College Station, Texas

Parker, W. G. 45
Box 2100
Houston, Texas

Parks, Mabel 48
S Teacher, TSCW
521 Texas St.

Denton, Texas

Parnell, E. D. 49
Teacher, A. & M.

P. O. Box 366
College Station, Texas

III

Membership List

Parr, Mildred 49
Chemistry Teacher
1333 Ocean Dr.

I Corpus Christi, Texas

Parsons, Dr. L. D. 44
Prof. Chem. & Head Dept.

1612 Cooper St.

I Commerce, Texas

Patrick, W. W. 47
3764 Garnet St.

Houston, Texas

Paxson, Mr. Roland B. 47
S Consulting Geologist

4202 St. Emanuel St., Apt. 4
IV Houston, 4, Texas

Peacock, Mr. Dan 49
Instructor Chemistry
Box 701, Tarleton Station

I Stephenville, Texas

Pence, Prof. Forrest K. 47
Dept, of Ceramic Engineering
Univ. of Texas
I Austin, Texas

Pennington, Dr. J. V. 48
Assoc. Dir. S. W. Research Inst.
1320 City Nat’l. Bank Bldg.

I Houston, 2, Texas

Pequeno, Dr. Eduardo Aguirro 47
Institute de Investigaciones Cien-
tificas

de la Univ. de N. Leon
Apdo. 897

Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico

Perini, Mr. V. C. Jr. 46
Geologist & Oil Producer
Box 840

IV Abilene, Texas

Person, Mr. Hubert L. 46
Forester, So. Forest Exp. Sta.

Box 57, North St. Station

II Nacogdoches, Texas

Peterson, Mr. Randolph L. 47
Div. of Mammals, Royal Ont. Mus.
A 100 Queen’s Park
II Toronto, Ontario, Canada

* Petty, Mr. O. S. 40F47
S Pres., Petty Geophysical Eng. Co.
P. O. Box 2061

V San Antonio, Texas

Petty, T. F. 47

S Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Box 840

Wichita Falls, Texas

Petty, Van A. Jr. 45
S Geologist

P. O. Box 2061
IV San Antonio, Texas

Phelps, Dr. Austin 48
Prof. Zoology, U. of T.

A Box 1972, Univ. Station
II Austin, Texas

Philipp, E'. R. 44
Atlantic Ref. Co.

7307 Tokalon Dr.

Dallas, Texas

Phillips, Mr. Homer Wayne 48
Student, U. of T.

2208 Wroxton Rd.

II Houston, 5, Texas

"Pilcher, Dr. John F. 40F46
S Physician, Terrell-Pilcher Lab.

A 320 Med. -Professional Bldg.

II Corpus Christi, Texas

Pittman, Dorothy G. 49
Biology Prof.

Box 96, Tarleton Station

II Stephenville, Texas

Platt, Volney M. 49

Lab. Director

1710 W. Summit Ave.

III San Antonio, Texas

*Pomerat, Dr. C. M. 44F46
S Prof, of Anatomy
Med. Branch U. of T.

II Galveston, Texas

* Porter, Eugene L. 45F46
Prof, of Physiology

Univ. of Texas Med. College
II Galveston, Texas

Porter, Dr. Lon V. 48

Asst. Prof. Fixed Multiple Res.
1018 Blodgett
II Houston, 4, Texas

Potter, Mr. Floyd E., Jr. 49
Student, Univ. of Texas
3400 Cedar St.

II Austin, 21, Texas

* Potter, Dr. Geo. Edwin 30F33

Prof. Zoology & Prev. Med. Adv.
Box F. E., A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Potts, C. S. 46^

Dean Law School

III S. M. U., Dallas, Texas

Powell, Ernest H., Jr. 48
Field Asst. Biologist
Inst, of Marine Sci. Lab.

II Port Aransas, Texas

Powell, Ralph S. 47
4444 Fairway Ave.

Dallas, Texas

Powell, Mr. W. J. 47
Consulting Engineer
501 Thomas Bldg.

I Dallas, 1, Texas

*Power, Harry H. 43F46
Prof. Pet. Engineering-
2600 Wooldridge Dr.

IV Austin, Texas

Prescott, T. B. 49

Teacher, Minister, S. H. S. T. C.

P. O. Box 934

III Huntsville, Texas

*Prince, Dr. Homer E. 39F46
Allergist
A 808 Caroline

II Houston, Texas

*Prouse, Dr. Ervin J. 44F46
Instructor, Univ. of T.

F 3215 Liberty St.

I Austin, Texas

Puzin, L. A. 47
S 1515 Apco Tower
Oklahoma City, Okla.

*Quisenberry, Dr. John H. 37F
F Poultry Dept., A. & M. F. E.

II College Station, Texas

170

The Texas Journal of Science

Rabb, Edward Layne 49

Biology Instructor, Allen Mil. Acad.

1312 Ursuline Ave.

II Bryan, Texas

*Rabideau, Glenn Sylvester (Dr.) F46
F Dept. Bot. & Bact., U. of T.

II Austin, Texas

Ramsey, Dr. Glenn V. 49
Prof, of Psychology, U. of T.

1308 Bentwood Rd.

III Austin, Texas

Ramsey, Louis Weete 48
S Box 441, T.C.U.

Ft. Worth, 9, Texas

Randolph, Neal M. 49
Acting Prof.

Box 425, Tar let on Station
II Stephen ville, Texas

*Ransone,, Mr. W. R. 43F48
S Managing Partner, Geochem. Sur.
A 3806 Cedar Springs Ave.

IV Dallas, Texas

Rasmussen, Mr. William C. 49
Geologist, Speed Oil Co.

Box 4863

IV College Station, Texas

*Ray, Dr. Cyrus N. 46F46
Texas Archeological & Paleon. Soc.
Box 62

II Abilene, Texas

Reagan, Mr. P. H. 46
A Mining Engineer
IV Hye, Texas

Redfield, Mr. Robert C. 46
Gen. Mgr., Stone Products Inc.

A 2101 Schulle,

IV Austin, Texas

*Reid, Mrs. Bruce 37F
Box 218
Kountze, Texas

Reid, Mr. Duncan H. 44
Prof. Poultry, A. & M'.

P. O. Box 355, Poultry Hus. Dept.

II College Station, Texas

Richards, Dr. Arthur 47
Teacher

Dept. Geology, SMU
IV Dallas, Texas

Richardson, Dr. Luther R. 48
Assoc. Prof. Biochem. & Nutrition

Box 102

II College Station, Texas

Rix, Mr. R. A. 44
Head Dept. Agriculture
1611 Stonewall St.

II Commerce, Texas

Robinson, Ernest Guy 44
Mgr. Exploration, Shell Oil Co.

P. O. Box 100

IV Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Roddy, Roy 49
Agriculture Editor
Dallas Morning News
II Dallas, Texas

Roden, Harry 47
S The Texas Co., Box 457
Pt. Neches, Texas

Rogers, Claude Marvin 49
Instructor, Univ. of Texas
Botanical Lab. U. of T.

II Austin, Texas

^Rogers, Dr. Fred T., Jr. 42F46
Science Dept., Michelson Lab.
China Lake, Calif.

^Rogers, Dr. Marguerite 42F46
Science Dept., Michelson Lab.
China Lake, Calif.

*Rosaire, Dr. E. E. 46F48
S Consulting Geophysicist, Subterrex
F Route 7, Box 412-D

I Dallas, Texas

Rose, H. W. 47

S c/o Sun Oil Co., P. O. Box 2880
Dallas, 1, Texas

*Rosenblad, Dr. L. E. 40F47
M. D., Schmidt-Rosenblad Clinic
Box 749

V Velasco, Texas

Roston, Mr. J. Paul 47
Dept, of Pet. Eng., U. of T.

A 407 W. 18th St., Apt. 114
IV Austin, Texas

Roth, Dr. Joseph M'. 41
Head Dept, of Phil. & Psy.

College of Mines

III El Paso, Texas

Rothschild, Miss Babette 49
Instructor Biology, U. of H.

5006 Calhoun Dr., Apt. 24

II Houston, Texas

* Rouse, Dr. John T. 46F49
Regional Geologist, Magnolia Pet.
F P. 0. Box 900

IV Dallas, Texas

Rowden, Dale H.

S 2801 Transit Tower
IV San Antonio, 5, Texas

Rowell, Chester M. (M'r.) 46

Botany Instructor
A Box 2088, A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Rush, R. R. 46
Box 686

I San Marcos, Texas

Russell, Daniel (Mr.) 46
Prof, of Rural Sociology
A Box 255, F. E.

III College Station, Texas

Russell, J. J. Jr. 46
S Pet. Geologist
P. O. Box 2406

IV Wichita Falls, Texas

Russell, P. G. 46
Geologist
P. O. Box 2837
III Dallas, Texas

:KRutherford, Mr. Charles R. 39F48
S Research Physicist, Def. Res. Lab.

I Mt. Vernon, Texas

Rypma, Mr. Richard B. 49
Teacher

A Box 13, A. & M'. Annex

II College Station, Texas

Membership List

Samuell, Mr. John Howard 46
S Pet. Engineer
First Nat’l. Bk.

IV Dallas, Texas

*Sanden, Rev. O. E. 39F46
Minister & Dean N’Western Sch.

50 Willow St.

I Minneapolis, 8, Minnesota

Sanders, Mrs. Ottys 30

Asst. Prof., Med. Art, S.W. Med. Col.

P. O. Box 4084

II Dallas, Texas

*Sanders, Mr. Ottys 39F39
Mgr. Southwestern Bio. Supply Co.

A Box 4084
II Dallas, 8, Texas

Sanders, Virginia D. 49
Med. Technologist
114 Davis Court
II San Antonio, '2, Texas

*Sauer, Mrs. Mary Elmore 44F46
Asst. Prof. Anatomy
F 1115 Post Office St.

II Galveston, Texas

Schaeffer,- Hugh C. (Mr.) 46
Schaeffer Geophysical Co.

A P. O. Box 2036
IV Shawnee, Okla.

*Schlesselman, Dr. G. W. 43F46
Box 2, F. E., Geography Dept.

IV College Station, Texas

* Schmidt, Dr . C. C. 40F48
S Head Physics Dept.

F Physics Dept. Texas Tech.

I Lubbock, Texas

*Schoffelmayer, Mr. Victor H. 40F44
S Retired Editor, Dallas Morning News.
A 4440 Beverly Dr.

II Dallas, 5, Texas

Scholl, L. A. Jr. 46
Mgr. Geophysical Div., Texas Co.
1812 Banks
IV Houston, 6, Texas

*Schrank, Dr. A. R. 44F46
Biological Sciences Prof.

A Dept, of Zoology & Physiology, UofT.
Austin, Texas

Schreiner, Charles III 49
Rancher
Y. O. Ranch
II Mt. Home, Texas

*Schuchardt, Dr. V. T. 39F45
S Teacher, U. of T.

F Bacteriology Dept., U. of T.

II Austin, Texas

* Schulze, Mr. B. E. 35F46
Teacher Physics, Del Mar College

A 2919 Dempsey St.

I Corpus Christi, Texas

Schumacher, J. P. 47
S 1348 Esperson Bldg.

Houston, Texas

Schwartz, Miss Guydell L. 49
Microbiologist, Navajo Med. Cen.

II Ft. Defiance, Arizona

Schwennesen, A. T. 49
S Geologist

2702 N. Esperson Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

Scobey, Ellis H. 46
807 Cuthbert
IV Midland, Texas

*Scoular, Dr. Florence I. 39F39
S Prof. & Dir. Home Eco.

A Box 5217, T. C. Station
II Denton, Texas

Searle, E. H. 44
Oil tester-inspector
3033 Alamo Ave.

Pt. Arthur, Texas

Selig, A. L. 46
3101 Gulf Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

Sergeant, Tom P. 49
Asst. Prof.

Trinity Univ.

San Antonio, Texas

Shearer, Dr. A. R. 39
S Country Doctor
Box 428

II Mont Belvieu, Texas

Sheets, Martin M'.

Chief Geologist
A 1450 M. Esperson Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

Sherar, Stuart 47
1307 Esperson Bldg.

Houston, Texas

Sherer, Charles R. 48
Prof, of Math
Math Dept. T. C. U.

I Fort Worth, Texas

Shigley, C. M. 49
Asst. Gen Mgr.

Dow Chem. Co.

I Freeport, Texas

*Shinners, Dr. Lloyd H. 45F46
Asst. Prof. Biology
A S.M.U.

II Dallas, 5, Texas

Showalter, W. P. 49
Chem. Prof.

1060 W. Sloan
Stephenville, Texas

Siemer, Bro. William J. 49
Prof, of Geology
St. Mary’s Univ.

San Antonio, Texas

Silverberg, Edwin 49
Teacher, General Science
1035 Prince St.

II Beaumont, Texas

*Silveus, Mr. W. A. 33F47
Lawyer & Author
A 832 Cambridge Oval
II San Antonio, 9, Texas

*Silvey, Dr. J. K. G. 44F
Biology Prof., Chmn. Sci. Div.
A T. C. Station

II Denton, Texas

*Silvey, Dr. O. W. 30F30
Dept of Physics, A. & M.

I College Station, Texas

Simons, Mr. Verne F. 49
S Certified Public Acct.

A Box 1892

III Houston, Texas

172

The Texas Journal of Science

*Singleton, Dr. Gordon G. 40F47
Pres, of Mary Hardin Baylor
F Box 410

III Belton, Texas

Singleton, J. R. 49

Project Leader, Texas G. F. & O. C.

Box 241

V Rockport, Texas

Sivells, Mr. H. C. 46
Chmn. Biology Dept.

A Box 383, S. U. Station
II Georgetown, Texas

Skelley, Mrs. Rose V. 48
Biology Dept.

2631 Wichita
Houston, 4, Texas

Skrabanek, Robert L. 49
Dept, of Ag. Eco., A & M
College Station, Texas

Smith, Bishop A. Frank 46
Resident Bishop of Houston Area
2308 Southmore
Houston, Texas

Smith, Arthur W. 40
Grad. Asst., Dept, of Physics
816 Wood St.

I Waco, Texas

Smith, B. T. 48

Math Instructor & Aviator

2604 - 2nd Street

I Lubbock, Texas

*Smith, Dr. C. S. 37F41
S Prof, of Biology
211 W. Wood St.

II San Marcos, Texas

*Smith, Dr. Cornelia M. 40F
Prof, of Physics
Baylor Univ.

I Waco, Texas

Smith, Dr. Edwin Lee 48

Prof, of Physiology

Univ. of Texas School of Dent.

II Houston, 4, Texas

* Smith, Mr. Elmer G. 29F34
Assoc. Prof, of Physics
F c/o Physics Dept., A. & M.

Y College Station, Texas

Smith, G. P. 49
Teacher, Sul Ross
Box 659
Alpine, Texas

*Smith, Dr. Hobart M. 46F47
Asst. Prof.

A Dept. Zoology, Univ. of Ill.

II Urbana, Illinois

Smith, Hugh B. 44
Head Dept, of Biology
211 W. Austin St.

II Nacogdoches, Texas

Smith, Logan D. 47
Asst. Prof., Bio.

Box 164, Baylor Campus
II Waco, Texas

Smith, Rex M. 46
S 1410 W. Main

IV Dothan, Alabama

* Smith, Dr. T. V. 46F49

Maxwell Prof, of Citizenship & Philo.
F Syracuse Univ.

Ill Syracuse, 10, N. Y.

*Smith, Mr. Victor J. 30F31
Teacher of Industrial Ed.

A 906 East Ave. D
III Alpine, Texas

Solomon, Dr. T. R. 48
Prof, of Political Sci.

Prairie View A. & M.

III Prairie View, Texas

Somers, George Brooks 49

Assoc. Prof. & Head Dept. Geology

4380 Wheeler Ave.

IV Houston, 4, Texas

Spann, Dr. Robert J. 48
Chiropractor
145 Davis Court
II San Antonio, 9, Texas

*Speer, Mr. O. G. 44F46
S Principal, Fairbanks Elem.

IV Fairbanks, Texas

Spence, Miss Agnes Telfer 36
Biology Teacher
A Ball High School
II Galveston, Texas

* Sperry, Dr. John J. 42F
Assoc. Prof. Biology, A. & M.

A Box 4922

II College Station, Texas

Sperry, Mrs. M'abelle E. 48
Teacher Science, Houston Ind. Sch.
1209 Rosedale Ave.

II Houston, 4, Texas

* Sperry, Dr. O. E. 36F38
Prof. Range & Forestry

F A. & M. F. E. 24
II College Station, Texas

Spice, Mr. Wm. H., Jr. 46
S Consulting Geologist

2101-03 Alamo Nat’l. Bank Bldg.

IV San Antonio, 5, Texas

Squire, Dr. Charles F. 49
Physics Dept.

Rice Inst.

Houston, Texas

Stangel, W. L. 47
Dean Div. of Ag.

Texas Tech.

II Lubbock, Texas

Stephens, I. K. 46
S. M'. U.

III Dallas, 5, Texas

^Stephens, Dr. Wm. R. 30F33
Chem. Prof. & Head Dept.

F Chem. Dept. Baylor Univ.

I Waco, Texas

Stern, Dr. J. N. 47
Aramberri 1070 Pte.

II Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico

Stone, Dr. Charles T. 46
S Univ. of Texas Med. School.
Galveston, Texas

*Strandtmann, Dr. R. W. 45F46
Entomologist Biologist
A Texas Tech
II Lubbock, Texas

Membership List

173

Street, Paul F. 49
Asst. Prof. Biology
1318 Hunt St.

II Commerce, Texas

Sulkin, S. Edward 47
Prof. Bact. & Immunology
2211 Oak Lawn Avenue
Dallas, 4, Texas

Sullivan, Archie W. 49
Asst. Prof. Ag. Eng.

Box 114, Texas Tech
II Lubbock, Texas

Sutherland, Robert 49
Director Hogg Foundation
U. of T.

Austin, Texas

*Svensen, Dr. Carl L. 30F35
Exec. Sec.

A 912 Tribune Bldg.

I Austin, Texas

Swann, Dr. Howard 46
Med. Sch., Univ. of Texas

II Galveston, Texas

Tallmadge, G. A. 48
Student

326 N. Austin
II San Marcos, Texas

Tapp, Paul F.

Chemist, Chemical Engineer
5224 Pease St.

I Houston, 3, Texas

* Taylor, Dr. I. T. 44F46
Co. Supt. of Schools

II E'dna, Texas

Taylor, Josiah 46
P. O. Box 2099

I Houston, Texas

Taylor, Wayne 47

S Wharton Co. Jr. College, Box 283
Wharton, Texas

Telford, Ira Rockood (Dr.) 48

Prof. Anatomy

Univ. of Texas Sch. of Dent.

II Houston, 4, Texas

Terrill, Mr. J. V. 46
S Geologist
Box 1461

IV Midland, Texas

Thein, Prof. Louis P. 49
Prof. Physics & Head Dept.

A St. Mary’s Univ.

I San Antonio, Texas

Thiers, Harry D. 47
Instructor, A. & M.

Box 5367

II College Station, Texas

Thomas, Cullen S. 47
S 6601 Hunter’s Glen Rd.

Dallas, 5, Texas

Thomas, John Wylie 49
Chem. Prof.

Box 541, Tarleton Station
I Stephenville, Texas

Thompson, Evan G. 46
S Geologist
2030 Milford

V Houston, Texas

Thompson, Mr. R. R. 46
Pet. Geologists, Hill & Hill
1607 Frederick St.

IV Fort Worth, Texas

Thompson, S. A. 46

Vice Pres. & Mgr. Land & Exp.

P. O. Box 900
I Dallas, 1, Texas

*Tidwell, Dr. Herbert C. 37F
Prof, of Biochem. & Chmn. Dept.

F 4228 Stanhope
I Dallas, 4, Texas

Tillman, D. M. 49
Student, Univ. of Houston
706 Eleanor St.

I Houston, 9, Texas

Tinney, William H. 49

Lecturer

3312-25th St.

II Lubbock, Texas

Tinsley, Willa Vaughan 47
SWTSC'., P. O. Box 412
San Marcos, Texas

Titterington, George A. Jr. 47
315 Hollywood Ave.

Dallas, 11, Texas

*Travis, Maury M. 41F
Consulting Geologist
726 Denver Nat’l. Bldg.

IV Denver, 2, Colorado

Trentham, Shannon Otis 49
Biology Prof.

Box 244, H. S. U.

II Abilene, Texas

*Trochta, Sister M. Berenice, CDP
Instructor Biology 39F46

Our Lady of the Lake College
II San Antonio, Texas

*Trotter, Dr. Ide P. 38F46
Dean of Grad. School, A. & M'.

A c/o Graduate School
II College Station, Texas

Turner, Guy Norman 49
S Geological, Clerical
1110 West Drew Ave.

Houston, 6, Texas

*Uhrich, Dr. Jacob 46
Biology Dept.

A Trinity University

II San Antonio, Texas

*Ulrich, Dr. Floyd Edward 47F49
Assoc. Prof. Math
F Math Dept., Rice Institute
I Houston, Texas

*Underwood, Dr. R. S. 38F
Teacher of Mathematics
F 2220 Broadway
I Lubbock, Texas

Upson, Mr. M. E. 46

Chief Paleontologist, Gulf Oil Co.

Box 1290

IV Fort Worth, Texas

Varvel, Dr. Walter A. 46
Prof, of Psychology, A. & M.

Box 4732

III College Station, Texas

174

The Texas Journal of Science

Vaughan, Mr. Wm. H. 46
S Supt. Gas Util. Dept.

P. 0. Box 1404

IV Houston, 1, Texas

*Vezey, E. E. 34F47
Teacher, A. & M.

Box 247 F. E.

I College Station, Texas

Vladykov, Vadim-D. 49
Biologist & Dir. Lab.

Dept, of Maritime Fisheries
Parliament Bldg.

Quebec, Canada

*Von Hoover, Dr. C. E. 48F49
Consulting Chemist, Pharmacolog.
F 838 Hot Wells Blvd.

I San Antonio, Texas

von Schwanitz, Dr. Charles 48
Editorial Consultant, Guardman
Pub. Co.

808 Taft St.

III Houston, 6, Texas

Waddill, Mr. A. W. 47
S Vice Pres. Houston Oil Field Mat.
P. O. Box 2589

V Houston, 1, Texas

Wagner, Robert P. 43
Asst. Prof.

Dept, of Zoology, U. of T.

I Austin, Texas

Waldschmidt, W. A. 46
Argo Oil Corp.

P. O. Box 1814

IV Midland, Texas

*Walser, Mr. Paul H. 37F47
S State Coordinator, Soil Con. Ser.

P. O. Box 417

V Temple, Texas

Walter, Mr. Robert C. 48
Science Instructor
I Route 2

Fredericksburg, Texas

Wapple. Albert R. 30

Assoc. Prof. Math. & Bus. Admn.

1300 E'. 23rd St.

I Bryan, Texas

Warburton, Mrs. Barbara 44
Teacher, Biology, Zoology
333 S. E. 5th St.

II Brownsville, Texas

Ward, William E. 49
Chem. Prof.

Texas Wesleyan College

I Fort Worth, 5, Texas

*Warmock, Barton H. 46F46
Teacher

Sul Ross St. College

II Alpine, Texas

* Warner, Dr. S. R. 37F
S Biology Prof.

Sam Houston State College
II Huntsville, Texas

Washington, Mr. Walter Owen 47

Civil Engineer

208 Pan American Bldg.

I Brownsville, Texas

Wasson. Mr. Alonzo 47
Rt. 2, Box 170
Austin, Texas

Waters, James A. 46
Sun Oil Co.

Dallas, Texas

* Waters, Lewis 45F46

Prof, of Art App. to Medicine
3802 Maple Ave.

II Dallas, 4, Texas

Watson, Mr. C. W. 49
Chemist, Texas Co.

A 3332 6th St.

I Port Arthur, Texas

Watson, Elizabeth 46
Southwestern Medical College
5618 Bell Ave.

Dallas, Texas

* Watts, Dr. Otto O. 33F34
Head of Chemistry Dept. HSU

F 1442 Lowden Ave.

I Abilene, Texas

* Weaver, Mr. Paul 42F48

S Chief Geophysicist, Gulf Oil
A P. O. Drawer 2100
IV Houston, Texas

Webster, Mr. Grady L. 49
Teaching Asst. In Bio., U of T
Rt. 1, Box 79 A

II Cedar Valley, Texas

*Weekes, Dr. Donald F. 44F?

S Assoc. Prof, of Physics
P. O. Drawer 1499

I College Station, Texas

Wegner, Mildred John 47
1124 Church St.

Galveston, Texas

Weinert, H. H. 49
Oil Producer, Banker

II Seguin, Texas

*Weisz, Dr. Stephen 46
M. D., Clinic Div., Beverly Hill Sani.
931-933 Medical Arts Bldg.

II Dallas, 1, Texas

Wendlandt, Mr. E. A. 46
S Div. Geologist, Humble Oil Co.

1130 S. Broadway
IV Tyler, Texas

West, Mr. Fred 49
S Pet. Geologist
IV Bonifay, Florida

West Texas Hist. & Sci. Society 29
Miss Anna D. Linn, Sec’y.-Treas.
Alpine, Texas

West, Thomas S. (Mr.) 46
Mech. Eng. Blanco Oil
2112 Alamo Nat’l. Bldg.

IV San Antonio, Texas

*Whaley, Dr. W. Gordon 47F49
Prof. Botany & Div. Plant Res.

F P. O. Box 1777, Univ. Station
II Austin, 12, Texas

Wheeler, Mrs. Helen R. 44
Flight Instructor
Colonial Hotel Apts.

3600 Camp Bowie Blvd.

Fort Worth, Texas

Wheeler, James A. 46
S Fidelity Oil & Royalty Co.

2010 Second Nat’l. Bank Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

Membership List

175

Whitehouse, Miss Eula 46
Tech. Asst. Herbarium, SMU
Box 739

II S.M.U., Dallas, 5, Texas

Whitney, Dorothy 49
Research Assoc.

U. of T. Med. Branch

II Galveston, Texas

Whittaker, Anne 48
Teacher, Sul Ross
A Holland Hotel

III Alpine, Texas

Wiese, Hilda F. 45
1128 Ave. E.

Galveston, Texas
Wiesen, Thomas F. 49

Prof. Economics
Texas Tech
Lubbock, Texas

Wilcox, Mary 40
Math Instructor
1202 Univ. Avenue

I Georgetown, Texas

* Wilde, H. Dayton 46F48
3013 Avalon PI.

IV Houston, 19, Texas

Wilks, Syrrel S. 49
Prof. Biology
SWTSC'

II San Marcos, Texas

Williams, Mr. E. Darrell 43
Consulting Geophysicist
Box 468

I Lander, Wyoming

Williams, Herman F. 49
Lecturer in Ag. Eng.

Box 193, Tech Station
I Lubbock, Texas

!i: Williams, Mr. Myron L. 39F
Prof, of Eco. & Bus. Admn.

Box 23, S. U. Station

III Georgetown, Texas

!!‘Williams, Dr. O. B. 49
Prof, of Bact., U of T
F Box 1585, Univ. Station
Austin, Texas

* Williams, Prof. Roger 43F46
Prof, of Chem. Dir. Biochem. Inst.

F Chem. Dept., Univ. of Texas

I Austin, Texas

Williamson, W. L. 49
Dist. Agt. Extension Ser.

Ag. Bldg., Texas Tech.

Lubbock, Texas

Willingham, J. J. 49
Prof, of Dairy Manufacture
Texas Tech

II Lubbock, Texas

Willingham, J. Roy Jr. 49
Teacher, Abilene Christian Col.
Station A, Box 588
II Abilene, Texas

Wilson, Mr. F. Wayne 45
Geologist, Am. Rep. Corp.

1817 Pet. Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

* Wilson, Mr. John H. 43F46
Geophysicist-Independent Exp. Co.
1411 Electric Bldg.

I Ft. Worth, Texas

Wilson, Bro. Raphael, C.S.C. 48
Catholic Educator, Biology
St. Edward’s Univ.

II Austin, Texas

Wilson, Miss Velma M. 38
Teacher & Head Dept, of Science
1020 Palm Blvd.

I Brownsville, Texas

Wilson, William B. 49
Rockport, Texas
Winans, Henry M., M. D. 47
S 3825 Beverly Dr.

Dallas, 5, Texas

Winebrenner, O. E. 45
Dean of Science Dept., Howard
Payne

903 Rogan Ave.

I Brownwood, Texas

^Winters, Dr. Jet C. 33F33
Teacher of Home Eco.

3004 Clearview Road

II Austin, 21, Texas

*Winton, W. M. 33F33
Teacher
T. C. U.

II Fort. Worth, Texas

*Witt, Dr. Paul C. 34F39
S Prof. Chem. & Head Dept. Nat. Sci.
E 811 East N. 16th St.

I Abilene, Texas

*Witt, Paul E. 34F36
S 3417 Shenandoah
Dallas, 11, Texas

Wolf, Mr. Albert G. 43
Mining Eng. & Geologist
1009 2nd Nat’l. Bank Bldg.

IV Houston, 2, Texas

Womack, Mr. K. E., Jr. 49
Research Asst., Tax Research Assn.
1025 Cotton Exch. Bldg.

III Houston, 2, Texas

Woods, Dr. Ozro T. 47
3501 Harvard St.

Dallas, Texas

Woods, Mr. R. D. 46
Paleontologist, Humble Oil
1037 A Humble Bldg.

IV Houston, Texas

Wooten, Mrs. Mattie Lloyd 46
Dir. Dept. Sociology, TSCW
1113 N. Locust St.

Ill Denton, Texas

*Worley, Gordon, Sr. 45F46
Special Supervisor
Dept, of Education

III Austin, 11, Texas

Wright, A. C. 46
524 Woldert St.

IV Tyler, Texas

Wright, Dr. E. R. 49

Head, Analytical Dept. Tex. Div.

Dow Chem. Co.

1515 West Broad
I Freeport, Texas

176

The Texas Journal of Science

Yocum, W. W. 49
Horticulture Teacher
Texas Tech.

11 Lubbock, Texas

York, Christopher 46

Teacher

Box 1915

I Austin, 12, Texas

* Young, Dr. Arthur W. 38F41
Prof. Agronomy

Dept. Plant Industry, Texas Tech

II Lubbock, Texas

Young, Dr. Dixie 49
Teacher, TSCW
621 Grove St.

II Denton, Texas

'•‘‘Young, Dr. Vernon A. 48F48
Teacher & Head Dept, of Range and
Forestry

F Range & Forestry, A. & M.

II College Station, Texas

Zingery, W. W. 49
S Owner, Zingery Map Co.

1413 City Nat’l. Bank Bldg.
Houston, Texas

Zoffman, George F. 49
S Mining Engineer
1120 Esperson Bldg.

Houston, Texas

Zotos, Dr. G. A. 49
S Process Engineer
2528 Broadway
I New York, 25, N.Y.

LIBRARIES

Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh 49
4400 Forbes St.

Pittsburgh, 13, Pa. (LIBRARY)

El Paso Public Library 30
El Paso, Texas

Fondren Library 39
S. M. U.

Dallas, Texas

Ft. Worth Public Library 40
S Ft. Worth, 2, Texas

Houston Public Library 41
500 McKinney
Houston, Texas

La Retema Public Library 49
511 South Broadway
Corpus Christi, Texas

Rice Institute Library 44
P. O. Box 1892
Houston, 1, Texas

Rosenberg Library 30
c/o C. Lamar Wallis
823 Tremont
Galveston, Texas

San Antonio Public Library 47
201 Market St.

San Antonio, 5, Texas

Science Library 49
Science Museum
South Kensington
London, S. W. 7., England

Texas Engineer’s Library 49
A. & M. College, College Sta., Texas
U. S. Dept. Agriculture Library 49
Washington, 25, D. C.

Univ. of Texas Library 47
Austin, Texas

Mac'kin, Dr. J. G. 49

Texas A. & M’. Research Foundation

Marine Lab.

Grand Isle, La.

Editorial News and Notes

177

EDITORIAL NEWS AND NOTES

academy of science night at Hardin-Simmons University was on
April 28, when the Hardin-Simmons Science Club entertained the chapters
of McMurry College and Abilene Christian College, and state officers in a
joint meeting and program. The meeting was in honor of a visiting group
of scientists from Houston, Galveston, and College Station. Two hundred
twenty-five students were present to make the meeting an outstanding
success.

The program consisted of two addresses — one by Dr. J. Brian Eby,
president of the Texas Academy of Science, who gave an illustrated lecture
on '"Geophysics and Geology in Oil Exploration.” His address was followed
by a short social hour when refreshments were served by Mr. Charles Tandy
and Miss Rita Branscums’s committee of entertainment of Hardin-Simmons
Science Club. On re-assembling, Dr. J. G. Sinclair, president of the Conser¬
vation Council of the Academy and professor of anatomy at Texas Univer¬
sity Medical School, gave a very interesting address on "Some Adventures
in Research.” These speakers had been able to fly to Abilene through the
courtesy of Farnsworth and Chambers, construction engineers of Houston,
who furnished the plane for the trip. They were accompanied by other
Academy officials — Dr. Charles LaMotte, counselor of the Collegiate Acad¬
emy; Dr. Clifton C. Doak, former counselor and professor of biology at
Texas A&M; Mr. Lyle Blankenship, collegiate state president, also of Texas
A&M; Dr. Paul Witt, sponsor of Abilene Christian College Science Club;
and Dr. W. Norton Jones and Mrs. Marta Ve Fox, sponsors of McMurry
College Science Club.

The meeting was held in one of the spacious classrooms of the new
Abilene Hall at Hardin-Simmons and it was completely filled by a large and
appreciative group of Abilene scientists. We highly recommend this type
of program in the various colleges of the State to increase the interest in
Academy affairs throughout Texas.

THE COPANO RESEARCH FOUNDATION AND THE TEXAS GAME, FISH AND
oyster commission are cooperating on an investigation of the habits and
life history of trout, redfish and flounder.

arrangements have been completed for the Annual Meeting of the
Texas Academy of Science. The meeting will be held at the new Fondren
Library, the Rice Institute, Houston, Texas, December 2nd and 3rd.

Dr. William V. Houston, President of Rice, has cordially invited The
Texas Academy of Science to come to Rice and the Executive Council were
glad to accept.

The new library is admirably adapted to accommodate all sessions for
the Senior Academy, Collegiate Academy, and the Juniors.

The President’s dinner will be on the campus in the Rice Institute main
dining hall. We have been quoted a price not to exceed $2 per plate for this
dinner.

Dr. C. M. Pomerat, Executive Vice President, .is responsible for direct¬
ing and organizing the program. Dr. Charles F. Squire, of the Physics De¬
partment, Rice Institute, is chairman of the local arrangements and will be

178

The Texas Journal of Science

assisted by Mr. D’ Arcy Cashin and Dr. L. W. Blau. The general theme for
the meeting will be:

ffWHAT SHOULD TEXAS EXPECT FROM SCIENCE?'3

The general session on Friday afternoon, December 2nd, will be devoted
to this topic. (Section programs are not to conflict with the Friday after¬
noon symposium.) Section vice presidents will arrange their respective pro¬
grams and so far as feasible follow the central theme of the convention;
but unrelated papers will be acceptable.

Registration will be in the main lobby of the F’ondren Library of the
Rice Institute; and room reservations will be at your own choice.

EDITORIAL

With this issue we have attained what we hope will be the final format
of the Journal, at least in so far as the typography goes. There have been
some suggestions in regard to the cover. However for one person objecting
to the gray three persons have complimented us on it. Tan is not nearly so
attractive. We would be glad to have your comments on it.

We have been considering enlarging the size to 6V2 x 9% inches. This
is the same size used by Copeia, The Journal of Mammalogy and others. We
will also be glad to hear from the membership on this, as we want this to be
your Journal.

In this number, at the end of the paper by Mr. York, will be found
suitable editorial apologies for the inclusion, through mistake in composi¬
tion, of two maps prepared by him, in an earlier number with a paper of
very similar title. We are sorry that this occurred. Nevertheless, it presents
a very trenchant edge to the request that we have constantly made in all
issues of the Journal — Please put your name , the title of the paper and the
figure number prominently on all plates accompanying papers because,
while you know perfectly well where they go in your paper, the editor and
the printer have in this particular issue some thirty or forty figures and
plates, the majority of which had, when they came to us, no identifying
mark. It is one of the duties of the editor, of course, to key these to the
various papers and see that they are not lost, misplaced or stolen, but it
would be much simpler for the editor, who, believe it or not, has a great
deal to do, if you would label these plates so that the chances of getting
them mixed up will be kept at a minimum.

There is another point that we would like to bring to your attention.
One of the papers in the symposium on tracer elements, although presented
last December, arrived at our desk only some three or four weeks ago. The
task of publishing a quarterly journal is a good deal more onerous than the
task of publishing an annual. The press of other duties on the part of the
editorial board does not allow the members to enter into extended corres¬
pondence in order to run down missing papers that were not turned in when
presented, and which have floated around in the hands of the author for
three, five or six months.. These papers should come in as early as possible, in
order that we may be able to plan the issues properly and to present a
balanced quarterly that you will enjoy.

Editorial News and Notes

179

Moreover, please put your name, address and affiliations at the head of
the paper beneath the title. Very often when papers are turned in to chair¬
men of the various sections there is nothing on them but a name. Sometimes
there is not even a name and, if the accompanying letter has been lost
during the travels of the manuscript, and the program happens to be
incorrectly printed, which has happened, then it is the devil’s own task to
get the galley proof and manuscript to the author for correction and get it
back in time for publication.

These are little things that you can do very easily that would make
the task of editing the Journal immeasurably simpler for everyone concerned
and will produce a better Journal for you.

DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION
OF MANUSCRIPTS

1. Manuscripts should be submitted to The Editor, Texas Journal
of Science, Box 867, Rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to
minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of
the Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced
with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small
type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction
than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some
authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬
cult to make the necessary editorial corrections.

2. Each manuscript must be accompanied by two copies of an
abstract, not more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the
editorial board finds it advisable, the abstract may be published instead
of the paper. If the paper can be much improved or condensed the
editor may return it for such changes.

3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: —

Title

Name of Author
Affiliation of Author
Body of Paper
Bibliography

4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically
at the end of the article, without numerical designation. References in
the text should be by author’s name and date of publication.

The use of footnotes should be avoided wherever possible. These
are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as they
have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased
time and raises costs.

5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: —

Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex.

J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis.

— — - — - 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography.

Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps.

- — - — — ■ , . — 1947— Mistakes often made in preparing a

bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis.

180

The Texas Journal of Science

The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier
for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and
page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all.

6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the
Academy publishing budget. However, for the present it is desirable
that they be kept at a minimum. All illustrations should be in black
and white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper
and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬
trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should
be precise and included with the drawing and illustration.

7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if pos¬
sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography.
Printing tables is very expensive.

8. Arrangements are being made with the publisher to furnish
three sets of proofs to the editor so that one may be sent to the author
for proof reading before publication. However, until we are able to get
a sufficient mass of type set ahead, it will be very necessary to return
this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have
to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted
on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that
extensive changes, in the subject matter of the paper after the type has
been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be
made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author.

9. Arrangements are being made to furnish reprints. The follow¬
ing schedule of prices will apply, subject to change. They are identical
with those charged by Copeia, the official Journal of the American
Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. It will be necessary for a
check to accompany orders for - reprints, which may be returned with
the proof. This, of course, does not apply to institutional orders, but
only to Academy members ordering personal copies. This keeps book¬
keeping at a minimum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor.
It is felt that this is the most desirable way to handle the matter despite
the fact that in the past it has been the custom for the editor to obtain
the reprints from the publisher and then collect from the individual
member.

100 Copies

On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper

1 Pages 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12 12 to 16

Pages Pages Pages Pages

4.62 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40 15.40

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84
Each Additional 100 Copies

1.58 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89 5.81

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91

10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s
affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts.

Publications Committee
J. L. Baughman, Editor J. Brian Eby
L. W. Blau John G. Sinclair

The Texas Journal of Science

181

As a courtesy to the Academy, in doing business with our adver¬
tisers, please make mention of the fact that you saw their adver¬
tisement in The Texas Journal of Science.

Schlumberger Well Surveying
Corporation

Electrical Well Logging
Gun Perforating

Houston, Texas

Extra Quality

HUMBLE

tSot^fra

GASOLINE
MOTOR OIL

Companions in

HUMBLE OIL & REFINING COMPANY

182

Ti-ie Texas Journal of Science

Professional Directory

1 J. BRIAN EBY

Consulting Geologist

1404 Esperson Bldg.

, Charter 44776 Houston, Tex.

JOHN S. IVY !

Geologist 1

1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas

LEONARD J. NEUMAN

1 Registered Professional Engineer

Geological and Geophysical Surveys
Petroleum Engineering Reports
i Houston, Texas

( Geophysics Office Engineering Office

943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705
Ph. Fairfax 7086

PETTY GEOPHYSICAL

ENGINEERING COMPANY

Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys

317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas

LEO HORVITZ

, Geochemical Prospecting

, Horvitz Research Laboratories

, Houston, Texas

Ph. Keystone 35545 3217 Milam Street

HUDNALL & PIRTLE

Geologists

James S. Hudnall 510 Peoples Bank Bldg.
George W. Pirtle TYLER, TEXAS /

G. J. Loetterle 615 Alamo National Bldg. /

A. Bart Brown SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

MICHEL T. HALBOUTY

1 Consulting

Geologist and Petroleum Engineer

Shell Building

Houston 2, Texas Phone P-6376

E. E. ROSAIRE

Prospecting for Petroleum

DALLAS, TEXAS |

SHERMAN NELSON

! — OIL —

Royalty — Leases

Seguin, Texas

H. KLAUS

Geologist ,

KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY

Lubbock, Texas

WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR.

Consulting Geologist

2101-03 Alamo National Building

SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS

Consulting Geologists 1

Appraisals Reservoir Engineers >

DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON '

Continental Building

DALLAS, TEXAS

The Texas Journal of Science

183

BLUME SYSTEM TREE EXPERTS

“Costs Less Than Mistakes”

Phone Linden 2114 2115 2736 Virginia

HOUSTON 6, TEXAS

HAMMAN OIL b REFINING CO.

HOUSTON BAY CITY

GEOPHYSICAL AND
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

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ELECTRICAL TESTING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

*Century is the world’s largest manufacturer of geophysical and special galvanometers

CENTURY GEOPHYSICAL CORPORATION

1333 North Utica— -Tulsa, Okla., U. S. A,

Export: 149 Broadway, New York

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IMPERMEX, Baroid’s organic colloidal material, provides superior drilljrl
muds in spite of the presence of such contaminants as salt, anhydrite, gypsun
and cement. Operators have found it unexcelled for drilling through zon<
which might cause the discard of ordinary drilling fluids.

IMPERMEX has long served the industry as a means of providing muds wil
marvelous filtration properties particularly useful for completion work. It find
more and more application in zones where its extremely low water loss, thi
filter cake, and resistance to contamination enable the operator to dr
ahead with a minimum of trouble, loss of time, and damage to the formatioi
IMPERMEX makes any clay mud a better mud, whether mixed with fres
water or brine. In some areas the employment of IMPERMEX muds has becom <;
standard practice. Many deep high-pressure wells have been drilled succesj :
fully largely because the use of IMPERMEX has produced workable mods (
extremely high density, thin filter cake, and low water loss.

Let the Baroid service engineer in your district show you how IMPERMEjj
can save you time and trouble in your wells.

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CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS

President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Editors: J. L. Baughman, L. W. Blau, J. G. Sinclair
Human health, hygiene and public health:

C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices.

C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin
Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos
Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities :

Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin
Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc.:

L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Cocouncillors :

Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station
Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houston
Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin
Raul Cortez, Race relations, San Antonio
Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Young scientific talent:

C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Cocouncillors :

Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M.

High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston
Conservation education and publicity. Public relations.

J. W. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin
Cocouncillors :

Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum. Dallas
Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin
Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M.

Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth

Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin
UNESCO. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston
Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls.

J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Food quality and responsible factors.

L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston
Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops.

Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas

Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. . . . . . . . . .

Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . .

Marine resources

J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport
Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges.

B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton.

Cocouncillors :

Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin
Forest and range. Forests as lumber.

Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station
Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio
Underground water and rivers.

Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston
Oil and gas.

William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin

Sulphur . . . . . . .

Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative.

F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin
Metals

Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston
Paleontological collections.

Glen. L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin
Archeological collections.

T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin

PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workers
together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the
government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities.
ORGANIZATION : The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior
Academy, there are five Sections : Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and
Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas,
South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of science
clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in
secondary schools.

MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of
science” is eligible to membership.

PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated In
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly, the first issue to appear
March, 1949. Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters.
MEETINGS: State- wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the
spring of each year.

DUES: Annual members, $2.00 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 in one payment.

Sustaining Members, $5.00 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment.

Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate
as active members.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Members $1.50 per year; Sustaining Members $3.75 per year.

4 *4

U. s* National Museum
•a i t-b s onian Institution

i„, Corbin* Librarian
a suing ton* D„ G.

RECORD PRINT, SAN MARCOS, TEX.

=====^^

Volume 1, Number 4 Published Quarterly at

December 30, 1949 San Marcos, Texas

Application for Entry as Second-Class Matter Pending. Act of Aug. 24, 1912

CONTENTS

Science, Industry and the Southwest. J. Brian Eby.

A Century of Progress for American Women. L. H. Hubbard 8

Some Problems of Economic Development of Latin America,
Walter H. Delaplane _ _ _ _ ... _ - - -

Atmospheric Electricity. W. F. Helwig.

Natural Sciences in the Emerging Curriculum. G. P. Parker 22

A Definition of International Education. Spencer Stoker.

Effects of Radiation upon the Blood.
M. Jeanne Fairweather, R. N. _

A Preliminary List of the Siphonaptera of Texas.
Richard B. Eads — — _ - - -

(Continued on Page One)

CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS
OF THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Editor

Pres. Conserv. Coun.

Rep. to A.A.A.S.

V. President, Sec. I, Physical
V. Pres. Sec. II, Biological
V. Pres. Sec. Ill, Social
V. Pres. Sec. IV, Geological
V. Pres. Sec. V, Conservation
Collegiate Academy
Junior Academy

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary -Treasurer
Im. Past-President
Elected Director
Elected Director
Elected Director

Beauford Jester
Governor of Texas
Austin

E. D. DeGolyer
Consulting Geologist
Dallas

EXECUTIVE
J. Brian Eby
C. M. Pomerat
Gladys H. Baird
L. W. Blau
J. L. Baughman
J. G. Sinclair
C. D. Leake
Newton Gaines
Gordon Gunter
Frank E. Luksa
S. A. Lynch
Paul H. Walser
Charles La Motte
Greta Oppe

COUNCIL (1949)

Geologist, Esperson Bldg.
Medical, Br., U. of T.

Social Sciences

Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Marine La., G.F.O.C.

Medical Br., U. of T.

Dean, Medical Br., U. of T.
Physics, Texas Christian U.
Marine Inst., Univ. Tex.
Sociology, Southwestern
Geology, A. & M. College
Soil Conserv. Serv.

Biology, A. & M. College
Chemistry, Ball Senior High

BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1949)

J. Brian Eby
C. M. Pomerat
Gladys H. Baird
L. W. Blau
E. P. Cheatum
J. C. Godbey
W. Armstrong Price

Geologist

Medical Br., U. of T.

Social Sciences

Humble Oil & Refining Co.

Biologist, S.M.U.

Chemistry, Southwestern U.
Geologist

Houston
Galveston
Huntsville
Houston
Rockport
Galveston
Galveston
Fort Worth
Port Aransas
Georgetown
College Station
Temple
College Station
Galveston

Houston
Galveston
Huntsville
Houston
Dallas
Georgetown
Corpus Christi

BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1949)
W. R. Woolrich, Dean
Engineering, University of Texas
Austin

0. S. Petty

Petty Geophysical Company
San Antonio

J. Brian Eby
Consulting Geologist
Houston

L. W. Blau
Humble Oil & Ref. Co.

Houston

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Chairman — George E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons
Paul C.Witt, Chemistry, Abilene Christian
Alpine

G- P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross
Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross
Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T.

Ronald K. DeFord, Geology, U. of T.
Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar
Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology,

Mary Hardin-Baylor
Brown wood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne
College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M.
Commerce

Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E.T.S.T.C.
Corpus Christi

W. Armstrong Price, Geologist, Box 1860
!Ds<llds

E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S. M. U.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy,

4440 Beverly Dr.

Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical
Hardy Kemp, Southwestern Medical

Denton

B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C.

Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W.

Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U.

Galveston

C. M'. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U.
Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T.
Huntsville

Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C.

Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I.
Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology,

Texas Tech

J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech
Arthur W, Young, Agronomy,

Texas Tech
Nacogdoches

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography,
S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer,

Incarnate Word

Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.S.T.C.
Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton
Hugh B. Smith, Biology, John Tarleton

Waco

W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor
Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor

CONTENTS — continued

The Relationship Between the Age and Respiratory Activity of

Tomato Root Tissue, Cultures. Joe Adamcik _ _ 39

Poisonous Plant Problems. Omer E. Sperry _ 43

Early Summer Foods and Movements of the Mule Deer
(Odocoileus hemionus) in the Sierra Vieja Range of
Southwest Texas. Alfred W. Anderson _ 45

A Preliminary Report on the Floral Composition of a Sphagnum
Bog in Robertson County. Chester M. Rowell, Jr _ 50

The Macartney Rose (Rosa bracteata — Windland).

I. T. Taylor _ 54

A Demonstration of Stained Root Flairs on Grass Seedlings.

Carol McCall _ 56

The Role of Denitrifying Bacteria in the Genesis of Formations
Found in the Carlsbad Cavern.

M. Gerundo and Guydell L. Schwartz _ 5 8

Chlorophyceae of Erath County. Lula E. Gough _ 61

The Summer Resident Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range in
Southwestern Texas.

Homer W. Phillips and Wilmot A. Thornton _ 101

Trends in Relative Emphasis upon Natural and Social Science.

David G. Steinicke _ 131

The Texas Journal of Science

Vol. I

December 30, 1949

No. 4

SCIENCE, INDUSTRY AND THE SOUTHWEST

J. Brian Eby*

Consulting Geologist
Houston, Texas

The writer is indebted to the Twentieth Century Fund for its permission to use
freely material contained in its pamphlet “USA, Measure of a Nation. A Graphic Pres¬
entation of America’s Needs and Resources” by Thomas R. Carskadon and Rudolph
Modely, published by MacMillan Company, New York, 1949. Acknowledgment is also
made to The Office of Rubber Reserve of the United States Government for reproduc¬
ing pictures of their plant at Baytown, Texas, operated by the Humble Oil and Refin¬
ing Company. Photographs and data were furnished by the Texas Gulf Sulphur Com¬
pany ; the Dow Chemical Company ; Shell Oil Company, the Texas Company and the
Humble Oil and Refining Company, for which the author is grateful. The Southwest
Research Institute, and Mr. Vernon Frost of Houston, provided special Kodachromes,
and other helpful information. The author especially wishes to thank the Humble Oil
and Refining Company for assistance in preparing the photographs and charts for slide
reproduction.

In this time of world-wide political and economic confusion, it is ap¬
propriate to examine the role of science, and the role of industry in the
shaping of our private lives. Under the stimulus of the recent war, the
scientific talents of the nation were organized and great sums of money
placed at their disposal. From this combined and subsidized research came,
not only the atomic bomb, so well publicized, but a vast stream of new
scientific applications to industry. These technological contributions
touched all phases of our lives; agricultural, business and manufacturing.

So complete and thorough has been this introduction of science into
industry, that the standard of living in the United States has been elevated
above that of any other nation in the world. In comparing ourselves with
other great countries, and in particular Russia, I should like to point out
that the United States, with 7% of the world’s population, and 6% of its
land surface, produces 46% of the world’s electrical energy, 61% of its
oil, 32% of its total factory output and 30% of its railroad mileage. Against
these figures Russia has 8.8% of the world’s population, 14% of its land
area, 5% of its factory production and 6.2% of its railroad mileage. Our
country has 1749 newspapers against 2 8 for Russia.

On this and similar comparisons the United States, at the present mo¬
ment, is head and shoulders above any other country on the face of the
earth in productive ability. While this is obviously in our favor, there are
the attendant dangers that our very preeminence will induce self-complac¬
ency and retard our further progress. It has been the history of many great
nations in the past, starting with Egypt, 6000 years ago, that once the
necessities of life were supplied, the genius for further activity is stilled.

It is of interest to review briefly the spectacular growth of our coun¬
try, and how the introduction and development of machinery brought our
civilization to its present peak. From 1700 until the present year our forest
lands have diminished, and our crop lands have steadily increased. With
the aid of machinery, we are now cultivating over 400 millions of acres
of land.

* Retiring President, Texas Academy of Science, 1404 Esperson Building, Houston, Texas,

4

The Texas Journal of Science

Our population has grown from 3 0 million in 1860 to 145 million at
the present, with large increases by immigration chiefly from European
countries up to and including the decade of 1920-30.

In the year 1 8 50, it is estimated that 79% of all productive power in
this country had its source from animals as against 1 5 % man power, and
6% machine power. It is now estimated that these percentages will be 1%
animal power, 3% man power and 96% machine power with eight times
the value of goods produced in 1960 than at the earlier date. Translating
this output into man hour figures, it means that one man produced 2 5c
worth of goods per hour in 1 8 50, and $1.60 worth of goods by the end
of the coming decade.

The trends in foreign trade give a definite bearing on the present
status of our industrial development. Within the last decade we are ex¬
porting in an increasing ouantitv. cotton, machinerv. automobiles, iron
and steel, shipping and freight, and interest and dividends. At the same
time our imports of rubber and silk are declining but cooper, tin, petroleum,
wood, paper, and United States travel abroad is raoidlv increasing. The
war-encouraged manufacture of svnthetic rubber, nvlon to replace silk,
artificial cryolite to replace the native cryolite in aluminum making, all
have greatly disturbed the dollar trade balance of the world.

In the general industry set uo of our nation, it is pertinent to call
attention to our income and expenditures. Our yearlv per capita income,
based on 1947 prices, has risen from $870.00 in 1929. to a war-time peak
in 1944 of $13 50.00, with an estimated total for 1950 of $1140.00. While
our personal incomes have risen, our total general government expenditures,
including local, state and federal, has risen from 23.1 billion in 1941, to an
estimated 52.2 billion in 1950, and 5 8 billion in 1960. Huge segments of
this increase are taken up by social insurance, interest on debt, war and
defense, transportation, and to a lesser extent, on schools. Our expenditure
for welfare from 1941 to 1960 is the onlv major item of government ex¬
pense which will probably show a decrease.

The trend in capital expenditures on the part of the country as a whole
shows a steadily increasing tendency to move from private investment to
public investment, a trend which in the writer’s opinion, is to be deplored.
In productive facilities, public participation in 1929 was 4%, and by
1960, it is estimated to rise to 9.4%.

With this picture of the national industrial set up in mind, let us
look to the shift in industrial importance in the United States from the
year 1919 through the past war, as affecting the various major sections
of the United States. The greatest single beneficiary has been the South
Central region, embracing largely Texas and Louisiana areas. The north¬
eastern section of the United States in 1919 contained 46.6% of the in¬
dustries of the country. By the close of the war its relative rank had shifted
to 23.8 %,, , and the Texas-Louisiana area had increased in the same period
from 5.6% to a total of 16.7% of our national industry.

Petroleum and its products set the pace for every industry in the
Southwest. In Texas alone, the annual income to the economy of the state
reached 3 billions of dollars and the oil companies have expended over

Science, Industry and the Southwest

5

twice this amount in new equipment and installations alone within the
last three years. To keep this industry on top, science is participating in
all phases of its activities. This is particularly true in the exploration for
new oil reserves.

The vast area of the continental shelf of the Gulf of Mexico is now
being explored for oil structures by means of the airborne magnetometer,
the gravity meter, and by seismograph with help of radar for location of
stations in the water. Already one billion dollars has been invested in this
program by a number of the larger oil operators, and up to the present
time, approximately one million dollars worth of oil has been recovered. It is
anticipated that it will require an additional five years before these surveys
return a profit on the venture.

It is the chemical industry to which the Southwest points with equal
pride. Within the past few years investments in the chemical industries
have totaled over 700 millions of dollars with an annual payroll exceeding
eighty- nine million dollars. The impact of science and the new technologi¬
cal procedures that have been made, made it highly desirable for many of
the Atlantic seaboard chemical companies to build new plants, near the
location of source materials, such as the hydrocarbons of the Gulf Coast
area rather than rebuilding their old plants back east.

One of the outstanding chemical developments in the coastal area in
1948 was the establishment of the first commercial synthetic glycerin
plant in the world by Shell Oil Company and Shell Chemical Corporation
on the Houston Ship Channel. This plant, now in operation, won for these
companies, and the Shell Developing Company, the 1948 award for Chemi¬
cal Engineering Achievement.

The Dow Chemical Company is operating, at Freeport, one of the larg¬
est magnesium from sea water plants in the world. This company, in addi¬
tion to magnesium, produces a number of other hydrocarbon chemicals
ranking it as one of the largest producers in this region.

The development of artificial rubber has indeed been one of the fore¬
most scientific achievements applied to industry. It started as a war-time
measure. The making of rubber from hydrocarbons was intended to relieve
this country from the necessity of importing natural rubber and it now
develops that the artificial rubber can be made to serve industry even
more satisfactorily than the natural product. The United States Rubber
Reserve owns the plant at Baytown and the Humble Oil and Refining
Company operates it. The very fact that artificial rubber is superior in
many of its uses to natural rubber insures the continuance of this industry
in the Gulf Coast area.

Sulphur is now being produced in this region, principally from New-
gulf, Fort Bend County, Texas, by the Texas Gulf Sulphur Company, and
Fake Washington, Louisiana by the Freeport Sulphur Company. The sul¬
phur production from this area represents approximately 90% of the
world’s output.

The application of science to agriculture in the Southwest has not
been overlooked, and there are four independent laboratories in the State
of Texas alone designed to improve cotton and its products. This year is

6

The Texas Journal of Science

historic in that it is the first year a bale of cotton was raised in Culberson
County, West Texas, representing the last county in the entire state to
have entered, at one time or another, the cotton raising industry of Texas.

Within recent years stock raising in the Southwest has had consider¬
able attention on the part of the scientists in the development of breeding,
feeding, and new grasses for the range. Many of the ranchers in Teaxs are
now cooperating with representatives of the Department of Agriculture of
the Texas A & M College and of the Southwestern Research Institute in
San Antonio. The progress, as indicated by improved cattle and better
range land has been little short of phenomenal. The Pecan Acres ranch of
Vernon Frost of Houston and his Jumbo Brahman bulls and cross-breeds
are an excellent example.

In the field of medicine and public health the establishment of the
M. D. Anderson Hospital for cancer research in Houston, and the re¬
searches of the University of Texas, Medical Branch, at Galveston, have
given tremendous impetus to investigators within our midst. Dr. R. Lee
Clark, Jr. at the Anderson Foundation is directing the work of the hos¬
pital and its publication "Cancer Bulletin,55 acclaimed by cancer societies
throughout the United States. At Galveston, under the direction of Dr.
Arild Hansen, significant advances are being made in the treatment of in¬
fant diarrhea and by Dr. Truman Blocker of severe burns from industrial
accidents.

Both institutes are joining in the search for new antibiotic substances
for the treatment of cancer and related diseases. It has been pointed out
that following the first world war, medical science has reduced drastically
deaths from influenza and pneumonia, tuberculosis and diarrhea-enteritis,
but heart diseases, cancer and motor accidents now rank as the foremost
killers. Following Dr. Alexander Flemming’s discovery of penicillin in
1928, and Dr. Selman Waksman’s equally important discovery of strepto¬
mycin in 1939, two new antibiotics were announced within the past year.
These were aureomycin, by Dr. B. D. Dugger, at the American Cyanamid
Company’s Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York, and chloromycetin,
by Dr. P. R. Buckholder, of Yale University. Aureomycin is strikingly
effective in rickettsial diseases and chloromycetin is efficient in typhoid
fever. The isolation of vitamin B 12, said to be the most potent drug in
the world, may well wipe out the dread disease of pernicious anemia. How¬
ever, this drug is not yet available on the market. No antibiotic or drug
has yet been found to be effective against the viruses or certain forms of
cancer, and to this end many of the research laboratories are assigning
their experts.

The medical profession can point with considerable pride to these great
accomplishments. The life span of the average citizen of our country has
increased steadily from 40 years in 18 50, in Massachusetts, to an expected
life span of 69 years in the decade from 1950 to 1960. The cost of medical
attention to the average citizen is about out of every dollar that we
spend. In the writer’s opinion, the secret of this achievement is the initia¬
tive and enterprise of private practice, and freedom of action in research
and employment.

In the field of transportation the scientist has turned his attention to
the development of more speed, more efficiency and more luxuries in travel.

Science, Industry and the Southwest

7

With this in mind the railroads are turning to Diesel engines, 5400 horse¬
power units, for more efficient locomotion. The Southern Pacific railroad
and the other major operators in the Southwest are joining the national
trend in the replacement of steam locomotives by gasoline and Diesel elec¬
tric engines. In 1948 alone, 1397 Diesels were placed on the nation’s rail¬
roads, raising the nation total to over 8000 Diesel units now in use. This is
about one-fifth of all the steam equipment now in service and the railroad’s
fuel requirements are slowly and inevitably changing from coal to oil.

The greatest gains in transportation in 1948 and 1949 are being reg¬
istered by the aviation industry. The scientist is continually and energeti¬
cally at work perfecting newer, better and bigger equipment to fly the
air lines. Among these planes the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constella¬
tion, and the Douglas DC 6 are among the top contenders. Jet planes for
civilian travel are right around the corner.

It may surprise some to know that in 1948 the air lines carried 52%
of all over-seas passengers, to and from the United States, a total of 1,810,-
061 persons. For the same year the air lines carried 63% of the over-seas
mail against 37% that went by ship. It should be pointed out, however,
that in 1948 many of the great ocean liners were not yet restored to active
service, and these percentages will probably not hold through 1949.

Even more surprising however, is the statement of A. P. Adams &
Associates of New York, aviation consultants, that for the month of May,
1949, the domestic air lines covered more passenger miles of travel than
all the pullman and parlor cars in the service of the domestic railroads. In¬
complete figures indicated that June, 1949, would also favor air line travel
over first class railroad travel.

To advance and facilitate the technical and industrial research in the
Southwest, vast new scientific laboratories have been established. The Shell
Oil Company was one of the first to build an extensive research plant for
chemistry and geophysics at Houston. The Gulf Oil Company, the Texas
Company, and Humble Oil Company, and several of the smaller operators
maintain large investigative staffs in both chemical and geophysical re¬
search.

The Texas A & M College has established a research foundation cover¬
ing a wide range of projects from agriculture to physics. The medical
research department of the University of Texas has already been mentioned.

The privately endowed Southwestern Research Institute in San Antonio
is a magnificent effort to further scientific research, in many phases of
agriculture and mechanics. On its spacious Essar Ranch near San Antonio,
chemical, physical and mechanical laboratories are devoted to a wide range
of research problems. A service for inventors is offered the public. Live
stock and farming comes in for special attention. Mr. Tom Slick, of San
Antonio, the founder of the Southwestern Research Institute, is to be
warmly congratulated in the fine plant he has created.

This union of science and industry has made possible the remarkable
development of the Southwest area in particular, and the United States
as a whole. We must recognize the fact however, that the mere building
of these plants and the raising of our pay rolls is not sufficient in itself to

8

The Texas Journal of Science

meet the serious competition of scientific thinking that our potential world
competitors might bring to play against us. It has been said that few new
scientific techniques have been discovered in this country in recent years,
but that all of the staggering development of the last decade has been
largely the application of well known scientific principles to industry. Our
greatest scientific contributions have occurred during the period from 1872
to 1918. Dr. Frederick C. Beach, late editor of the Scientific American,
and L. H. Campbell, of the United States Patent Office, compiled a list
of nearly 400 of the world’s foremost inventions and discoveries covering
the period of time from 1725 to 1918. According to their list 168 were
made by natives of the United States; 92 were made by English inventors;
45 by the French; 40 by the Germans; 3 by Italians and 1 from Russia.
This list was published in the 1940 edition of the American Encyclopedia.

While the odds seem overwhelmingly in our favor we should not fail
to point out that countries such as Russia now have the initiative of neces¬
sity on their side. The writer believes that our vast accomplishment can
only be preserved in the same manner. Let us not be like the Egyptians of
old, and raise pyramids to crush us whether these pyramids be of stone, or
governmental control, or direct dictatorship.

The American public must be made aware of the close relationship
between the aims and accomplishments of science and its application to the
industries which control our American way of life. We must remain active
in a land of plenty, work in spite of abundance, and protect our individual
freedoms. If we can do that, we need fear no power on earth.

A CENTURY OF PROGRESS FOR AMERICAN WOMEN
L. H. Hubbard

President, Texas State College for Women
Denton, Texas

1948 is a year of unusual significance to American women. It marks
the close of a century of struggle by them to secure the social and political
status to which in justice they have been entitled.

Someone has said that the historian of the future will describe the
last one hundred years as being distinguished by three great revolutions;
first, the industrial revolution and the development of power machinery;
second, the political revolution discarding the theory of the divine right
of kings and emphasizing the trend toward democracy on the one hand
and totalitarianism on the other; third, the change in the status of women.
All three are inter-related. For instance it was the invention of the cotton
gin by Eli Whitney that took weaving out of the American home and into
the textile mills, where women were given employment and so started
them on their way to enter the world of business and the professions. And
when they finally achieved the vote in 1920, through the passage of the
19th Amendment to the Constitution, democracy had taken another great
step forward.

One hundred years ago American women had no legal rights; their
children were under the sole guardianship of their husbands; even any wages

A Century of Progress for American Women

9

they might earn were the sole property of their fathers or husbands. They
were not allowed to speak in public, and lost reputation if they attempted
to do so. It was this obstacle that made Mary Lyon’s task so difficult in
raising funds for the establishment of Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary in the
winter of 183 5, and if it had not been for the devotion to her cause by a
small group of New England ministers, who permitted her to speak in
their churches, she could never have been heard. And even years later, when
Susan B. Anthony attended a meeting of teachers in Rochester, New York,
in 1 8 53, and asked for permission to speak, her action produced a sensa¬
tion, and the men delegates debated the issue for a long time before finally
according her the privileges of the floor, and that by a narrow majority.

The first humanitarian movement in which American women publicly
interested themselves was the abolition of slavery, and it was in this cause
that the first woman’s political club was organized in 1833, the Philadelphia
Female Anti-Slavery Society. The first public address by a woman was
made in America, also in Philadelphia, in 1836, by Angelina Grimke. She
was met with hoots and jeers, but she held her ground and was finally al¬
lowed to finish. Then in 1840 a group of American women, including
Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, were elected delegates to a
world anti-slavery convention to be held in London. But when the conven¬
tion opened and it came to the question as to whether or not women dele¬
gates should be admitted as members, a furious all-day debate resulted, with
the vote finally taken against seating the women, and they were placed

behind a curtain, so they would be entirely separated from the men delegates.

The treatment accorded these American women in London brought
them back to this country with a firm resolution to see that such an out¬
rage would not occur here. They began talking about a woman’s rights

convention. But public opinion even in the United States was so much

against them that they could make little progress. Each time they made
any suggestion toward a meeting the press especially was antagonistic. But
finally, in 1848, one hundred years ago, again led by those two stalwarts,
Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the first woman’s rights con¬
vention was organized.

The convention opened in Seneca Falls, New York, July 19, 1848.
The attendance was meager, but those who were there were high in their
resolution. Following the pattern of the Declaration of Independence, the
convention first adopted a recital of the wrongs and injustices which
American men had forced their sex to endure. Among them were the
following:

“He has never permitted her to exercise her inalienable right to the elective fran¬
chise.

“He has withheld from her rights which are given to the most ignorant and de¬
graded men — both natives and foreigners.

“He has made her, if married, in the eye of the law, civilly dead.

“He has taken from her all rights of property, even to the wages she earns.

“He has, made her, morally, an irresponsible being, as she can commit many crimes
with impunity, provided they are done in the presence of her husband . . .”

This recital of wrongs was then followed by a woman’s Declaration
of Independence which began with these words: "We hold these truths to
be self-evident; that all men and women are created equal . . .” Among the
rights for their sex they then went on to declare as essential to its well-

10

The Texas Journal of Science

being, and to which women were, in justice, entitled, were the right of
suffrage, the right to hold office, the right to own and control property,
to collect and control their wages, to make wills, to practice a profession,
to share the guardianship of her children, and to be a witness in court after
her marriage. We take these rights for granted now, but in 1848 women
had none of them. They are what this past century has brought to them.

The Seneca Falls Convention aroused the news sense of American
editors, and, up to the time of the gold rush of 1849 it was the sensation
of the hour. Inez Flayes Irwin, in her volume, "Angels and Amazons,”
states that "the heavier journals attacked it with formidable adjectives
and citations from Scripture. The new York herald began that campaign
of invective which lasted as long as James Gordon Bennett lived. But to
most journalists, the performance was merely funny — such a God-sent
opportunity for the newspaper humorist as arises only once in a decade
. . . On the other hand, a few radical newspapers took the movement seri¬
ously — in especial Horace Greeley’s new york tribune. This served to
draw the topic into controversy, to keep it alive. Within a year, the re¬
motest hamlet knew about the Seneca Falls Convention. And the gale of
laughter blew those tiny sparks, smouldering through the country, into
flames . . . Before 18 52, and 'without the least concert of action’, women’s
rights organizations had sprung up in Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Massa¬
chusetts and Kansas.” It was not long until a national organization was
formed.

In the meantime the doors of institutions of higher learning were
slowly opening to American women. The general public, however, still did
not believe in the idea. Many men honestly thought that women were in¬
capable of absorbing college education — -that their minds were not devel¬
oped to that extent — that they had no reasoning ability, and depended
wholly on intuition. In New York, in 1819, Mrs. Emma Hart Willard at¬
tempted to secure the passage of a law establishing a State college for
women. A furious debate resulted, and one legislator shouted, "They’ll be
wanting to educate cows next.” The bill was defeated, and Mrs. Willard
was forced to open a private school, the Troy Female Seminary, in 1821.
This was the first serious attempt to educate young women beyond the
3 R’s stage. This school was later to become Russell Sage College for
Women. Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary, still far from being a college,
opened its doors in 18 37. The first woman’s college to be chartered by a
State was the Georgia Female College in 1839. But it too was only a pre¬
paratory school. The first real woman’s college, that had a curriculum equal
to those of similar colleges for men was Vassar, which opened its doors
in 1 86 5. The first state tax-supported woman’s college was organized in
18 84, the Mississippi Female College and Institute, now the Mississippi State
College for Women.

As regards co-educational colleges, it was in 183 3 that American
women had their first opportunity to secure the benefits of college educa¬
tion. This privilege came to them in that year when Oberlin College, a
new institution then being opened by the Methodist Church, at Oberlin,
Ohio, opened its doors to women as well as to men on equal terms. But so
few opportunities did girls have at that time for securing even a high school
education that only four girls entered the first freshman class, and when

A Century of Progress for American Women

11

three of them received their degrees in 1837, a new epoch in the history
of woman was begun. By 18 50 a number of other co-educational institu¬
tions in the mid-West, including some of the state universities, were ad¬
mitting the few women who were prepared to enter.

The period of the Civil War, even though it did not bring to Ameri¬
can women their hoped-for enfranchisement, gave them their first big op¬
portunity to secure a foot-hold in the world of business and the profes¬
sions. Just as during the two world wars, the arming of American men
from 1861-1865 made it mandatory that American women take their
places in vocational and technical fields. And, as in the last two wars, the
efficiency of these women gave them a foothold in these fields that they
did not relinquish after hostilities were ended. The Civil War especially
made manifest the ability of the hundreds of volunteer women nurses to
alleviate the sufferings of the sick and wounded soldiers. Led by Clara
Barton the women quickly demonstrated their usefulness in this new field
of service. In tribute to the service which they rendered, President Lincoln
said: "I have never studied the art of paying compliments to women, but
I must say that if all that has been said by orators and poets since the cre¬
ation of the world were applied to the women of America it would not do
them justice for their conduct of the war.”

Now may I point out some of the milestones in your progress that
this past century and more has recorded. In the decade from 183 3 to 1843,
the first woman’s club was organized in Jacksonville, Illinois; it was called
the Ladies’ Association for Educating Females. Ann Wilkins became Amer¬
ica’s first woman missionary. Sarah Josephus Hale became the first editor
of a national magazine, Godey’s Lady’s Book, and started the movement
for our national observance of Thanksgiving. Oberlin College opened its
doors to women. Women also entered industry through the cotton mills
of New England. In the decade from 1843-18 53 came the Seneca Falls
Convention. Harriet Beecher Stowe published "Uncle Tom’s Cabin.” Maria
Mitchell was recognized as America’s first woman scientist. Between 18 53
and 1863 Clara Barton was appointed as a clerk in the Pension office at
Washington, thus becoming the first woman to be regularly employed by
the United States Government. This was in 18 54. During this decade also
Antoinette B. Blackwell became the first woman ordained minister, and
two other young women of the same name, and who were sisters, Elizabeth
and Emily Blackwell, were the first women to receive degrees in medicine.
Between 1863 and 1873 Julia Ward Howe wrote "The Battle Hymn of
the Republic.” Mary A. Livermore became the editor of The Woman’s
Journal. Between 1873 and 18 83 Linda Richards became the first graduate
trained nurse in the United States. And it was through Clara Barton’s in¬
fluence that The American Red Cross was founded. Frances E. Willard
founded the World Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and became the
first president of the National Council of Women.

In the field of politics, the struggle which began at Seneca Falls in
1848 moved slowly forward. Susan B. Anthony was soon its acknowledged
leader. When the slaves, after the Civil War, were enfranchised through
the passage of the 13 th, 14th and 15 th Amendments to the Constitution
of the United States, Miss Anthony and her tireless workers thought surely

12

The Texas Journal of Science

that the hour for American women had struck, and that now that negro
men had the right to vote the Congress would surely propose another
amendment to the Constitution, according this same right to women. But
she was doomed to disappointment, and it was not until 1920 that the
19th Amendment was finally adopted.

But have American women fulfilled their promise to prove worthy
of the ballot? Have they cleaned up politics in this country as they con¬
fidently predicted? There is much evidence in the negative. While many
American women have displayed a high regard for their privileges as citi¬
zens, it is a sad fact that many of their sex have failed to use wisely the
political power that has been placed in their hands. On the whole it can be
stated that women have not demonstrated their political wisdom, and have
not yet earned the political respect of the nation. A woman elected office
holder is still a rarity. I would like to call your attention to the words of
Carrie Chapman Catt, one of your great leaders of the past generation:
"What now, women of America?” she asked. "Another century calls you.
Side by side with men citizens it is for you to rejuvenate the republic,
revivify its faith and replenish the fires of human freedom . . . With the
same consecration to a great cause manifested by the pioneers who set our
feet upon the path leading upward, with the same devotion revealed by
those who came after and performed the drudgery of weary years, will
you, free women of America, lead on to that ideal democracy never yet
attained, but which alone can salvage threatened civilization?” What will
be your answer to this question, you women of America? I believe that it
will be what Mrs. Catt would have wanted it to be ,even though progress,
so far, has been disappointingly slow.

My subject for this paper is "A Century of Progress for American
Women.” And in many ways it has been a record of progress. But there
are many who feel that with their political failure there has been a cor¬
responding failure in the field of morals — that women, instead of raising
men to their standards of conduct, have lowered themselves to masculine
standards of profanity, of drinking, of sex. I believe that these criticisms
are not wholly justified. Yet they are not without foundation. There has
never been a time more than today when women needed to set the world a
good example. And if this is true of women in general, how much more
true is it of women who have had the advantages of college training. They
should be leading the way.

One thing we can assert with confidence. With its gains and losses,
this century has been tremendously significant for the women of America.
The girls of today are its product. They have been freed from the shackles
of ignorance and prejudice that encompassed them. They have become free
in body, mind, and spirit. But they must learn to use wisely their freedom.
Above all they must learn the value of discipline. For without discipline
the human spirit cannot flower.

Economic Development of Latin America

1 3

SOME PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF
LATIN AMERICA

Walter H. Delaplane

The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas

The twenty Latin American republics have such a marked diversity in
their size, terrain, population, resources, and other characteristics that it is
rather presumptuous of one to speak of the problems of development of this
area in a short paper. The economy of the River Plate Region embracing
Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay has long been based on agriculture and
livestock. Only in relatively recent times has there been any significant
industrial development, and that has been confined almost exclusively to
Argentina. In contrast, the economies of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Mexico, and
Venezuela have been founded largely upon mining or the extraction of oil.
Brazil, Central America and the Caribbean Island republics have been
chiefly agricultural, though in recent times industrial development has
proceeded apace in Brazil.

Throughout most of this region living standards have been at a very
low level, with the best standard in all probability that prevailing in Argen¬
tina, Uruguay and Chile. Productivity per worker has been low, and pur¬
chasing power consequently extremely limited. Since World War I much
activity has been directed to the industrialization of these areas. This move¬
ment was the accompaniment of a growth of strongly nationalistic feel¬
ing in most of these states. During World War II, when foreign sources
of supply could no longer be tapped for the consumer goods needed and
when producers abroad were not in a position to compete with domestic
manufacturers, existing manufacturing enterprise grew rapidly, and many
new products of national industry appeared on the local market. The ex¬
pansion of industry in thesS years has been greatest in Brazil, Argentina
and Mexico. Even the smaller republics, however, have been stimulated to
finance the undertaking of production of light industry.

Despite the development that has taken place, money wages and liv¬
ing standards remain low throughout virtually all of this area. In Paraguay,
for example, in 1946 a skilled worker earned the equivalent of about $1.00
to $1.25 United States money per day. School teachers received about
$25.00 per month or less and workers in a managerial capacity earned as
much as $75,000 to $100.00 a month. While these wages and salaries are
low compared with those of the metropolitan areas in South America, they
are indicative of the general level of incomes prevailing throughout a large
part of the region. Notwithstanding low wage rates, costs of production
have generally been high, owing to the extreme shortage of capital and to
the scale of enterprise which was limited by the narrowness of the market.

Attempting to increase output and improve living standards, many
countries to our south have undertaken specific programs of economic de¬
velopment. While investment continues to be made in Latin America by
people and firms in the United States and Europe, the republics have
undertaken to direct the development of their economies by establishing
various agencies and giving them broad powers of economic planning. In

14

The Texas Journal of Science

Mexico, for example, the Federal Industrial Development Commission was
formed on June 1, 1944, on the basis of previously existing commissions.
The development commission (Institute de Fomento) in Colombia has
been operative since the 193 0’s. In 1946 Argentina provided for the draft¬
ing of a five-year plan and turned over broad economic powers to the
central bank. Brazil, Chile, Peru and Bolivia are other countries which have
made provision for the establishment and operation of similar governmental
or quasi-governmental agencies.

Notwithstanding active governmental participation in programs for
economic development, these programs have met so far with only limited
success. Each country has sought to step up the rate of progress, particu¬
larly since the end of the war, when machines and other capital equipment
once more became obtainable from the United States and Europe. The in¬
dustries already erected and those contemplated, however, face serious diffi¬
culties in their future growth. The problems obstructing their development
are many, and in this paper I hope to discuss briefly some of them, al¬
though a satisfactory analysis can hardly be attempted in so short a space.
Generalizations, furthermore, on possible solutions of these problems are
impossible, and only by detailed study of the individual country concerned
can suggestions be made that would apply to that particular area. The
following discussion, then, can do little more than highlight the economic
problems which our Latin American neighbors face in their economic
development.

Without implying that the following order indicates the degree of
gravity of the problem in economic development of Latin America, we
might list (1) the development of transportation facilities, (2) the pro¬
vision of adequate power and fuel to meet industrial development require¬
ments, (3) the problem of financing, (4) the problem of population and
immigration, (5) the need for improvements of education, (6) the elimi¬
nation or reduction of political instability, and (7) the arrest of the
postwar inflationary trend. It may be noted furthermore that these prob¬
lems are closely interwoven. In fact it is virtually impossible to separate
the economic from the social and political problems in Latin America.

For the industrial growth of Latin America the development of ade¬
quate transportation facilities and of power and fuel is fundamental. With
respect to the former, the construction of railroads and of highways has
probably proceeded farther in those countries which have enjoyed the
higher degree of industrialization. The air traveler in Brazil can note
the extensive network of airlines operating and at the same time observe
the almost complete lack of ground transportation facilities so important
to heavy industry. Except for a narrow coastal belt, Brazil is virtually
undeveloped, and the settlement of large areas will undoubtedly await the
construction of such facilities. The long range of mountains in eastern
Brazil has constituted a serious barrier to the westward development of
the country, and continues to make very costly the construction of trans¬
portation lines into the interior. The countries in western South America
similarly face the difficult task of road and railroad construction through
the high and rugged Andean ranges. In most of Central America and parts
of South America the expansion of land transportation is hindered by a

Economic Development of Latin America 15

combination of mountains and jungles. Although air transportation has
had a remarkable growth, particularly in Colombia and Brazil, it is still
unable to compete with railroad and truck transportation in serving the
day-to-day needs of industry and agriculture. Various nations to the South
are at present tackling this problem, and both railroad and highway con¬
struction are going forward in Brazil, Bolivia, and elsewhere. The heavy
financing costs and other problems make progress slow and retard the ex¬
ploitation of resources of the area. Shortages of coal, oil, and gas and
failure to develop the hydro-electric power potential impose another seri¬
ous obstacle to the growth of industry. The discovery of oil in southern
Chile and Argentina within the last few years promises to make these
nations less dependent upon outside supplies. Likewise, Bolivia is attempt¬
ing to expand its production of crude oil and its refinery capacity, so as
to become self-sufficient, and Brazil is undertaking exploration and devel¬
opment of its oil industry. Only Venezuela. Colombia and Mexico can be
considered as being self-sufficient in liquid fuel resources. The expansion
of steam generation of electric power to meet the growing demand can be
undertaken cheaply only if good domestic fuel deposits can be found and
exploited. The development of hydro-electric resources would require heavy
investment in generating plants and in transmission lines. The falls of the
Guaira and Iguassu Rivers in Brazil on the Argentine and Paraguay bound¬
aries have high electric potential, but they are located several hundred
miles from any important industrial consuming areas. The Chilean govern¬
ment is perhaps making the most extensive effort of the various countries
to the south in the development of their hydro-electric possibilities. Such
construction brings to the fore, however, the problem of financing, which
will be discussed at some length later in this paper.

Before considering the need of capital in Latin America, it is fitting
to indicate the problems which impede investment in that region and the
introduction of machinery and other tools of production. Acting as a
brake on industrial growth is the limitation of the market in which the
products of Latin- American industry can be sold, particularly the narrow¬
ness of the home market. Brazil, with an expanse greater than that of
continental United States, has a population only one third that of our
own. The population in the entire hemisphere south of us falls short of
that of the United States. Even more important to the size of the markets
is the small purchasing power of the masses. For the economic develop¬
ment of the region immigration is needed, and Brazil and some other nations
have admitted considerable numbers of Europeans as immigrants. The
general tendency, however, has been for the newcomers to settle in the
already populated areas. Italians admitted to Argenina as agriculturists
have frequently filtered back into the cities and towns to become mer¬
chants. Little serious effort has been made by the governments to settle
the immigrants in the sparsely populated regions. Not much progress can
be made in that direction without subsidizing the new settlers and without
breaking up in some instances the large landholdings of a few individuals
and firms in such areas as the state of Matto Grosso in Brazil, northern
Paraguay, and northern, western and southern Argentina. In addition to
agriculturists who are willing to face frontier conditions, most of these
countries have a great need for technicians. In the last twelve years many
skilled workers have come to Latin America from Spain and Central Europe,

16

The Texas Journal of Science

but the number falls far short still of that required for an effective indus¬
trial establishment.

Much of this need for skilled personnel can be satisfied only through
the establishment of broader vocational training programs and by the ex¬
pansion of general educational facilities. The need for better educational
programs is particularly marked outside the metropolitan areas of the
larger countries and throughout most of the smaller nations. The problem
of education goes beyond merely teaching the worker how to handle Ameri¬
can and European machinery and involves making him do what he has
already been taught must be done. The maintenance of a highly mechan¬
ized economy requires a high degree of discipline of the workers. Of the
two problems in the development economically of Latin America, that of
educating the worker and that of inculcating in him the necessary disci¬
pline in the proper use of and care for machines, the latter conceivably
can be the much greater problem.

In the development of transportation facilities throughout the vari¬
ous countries in Latin America and in the mechanization of agriculture,
the introduction of improved techniques and the industrialization of the
area, a major difficulty is that of financing. This problem in turn is closely
bound up with the foreign trade of the region, with the political instability
so generally prevalent, and with the problem of education already men¬
tioned. There is little industrial equipment and agricultural machinery,
even little in the nature of simpler agricultural implements, that is avail¬
able to those nations out of their own production. The necessity for im¬
porting these requirements of their developmental programs and the need
at the same time to import a large part of their requirements of consumer
goods and to continue servicing their foreign debts have weighed heavily
on the balance of payments of most of these countries. During the war
their balance-of -payments problem was made much easier by the large
volume of exports commanding high war-time prices and their inability
to obtain the customary volume of imports, with a consequent accumula¬
tion of large dollar and sterling reserves. Two consequences of importance
to their future development may be noted in connection with the growth
of these foreign balances between 1940 and 1945. Lirst, the accumulation
of these assets in New York and London produced strong inflationary
pressures in most of the Latin-American countries. As the central banks
or foreign exchange authorities bought dollar and sterling drafts from
exporters, they paid for these acquisitions in local currency. The outcome
of this practice was a rapid expansion in the monetary circulation which
accentuated the inflationary pressures resulting from the unusual economic
activity and the high money incomes earned in producing the goods needed
by the Allies in their war effort. With imports severely curtailed by the
export controls of the United States, Britain, and other warring Allies,
formerly important sources of supply, the Latin-American states witnessed
a two-edged inflationary pressure in the form of higher money incomes
and fewer goods on which to spend those incomes.

Without effective systems of price control, the Latin-American states
generally experienced a greater and more rapid rise in their price indices
than the United States, Canada or England. Whereas our wholesale price

Economic Development of Latin America

17

index rose about one third between 193 8 and 1945, wholesale prices in
Mexico nearly doubled. In Brazil wholesale prices more than doubled be¬
tween 1940 and 1945, and the index in Colombia by the end of the war
had risen to more than twice the 1942 level. Cost-of-living indices, where
available, also tended to rise much farther during the war period than the
index of our own Bureau of Labor Statistics. Since the end of hostilities,
the upward movement has been even more pronounced.

The strong inflationary pressures in Latin America appear to be reach¬
ing their end in some areas, for example, in Brazil. As their prices have
climbed much higher than the prices of products imported and since much
of their production for export is inelastic, it seems likely that these coun¬
tries face a correspondingly greater decline in the prices of their foodstuffs
and raw materials in the coming months. Early in 1949 the price of

Dominican cacao, for example, was only about 2 5 per cent of the quota¬
tions prevailing a year earlier. In the face of large exportable surpluses of
wheat from the United States and Canada and of increased agricultural
production in Europe, Argentina will no longer be in a position to exact
the high prices of the last two or three years for its exports. The recent
price decline of vegetable oils in the United States portends a similar fall
in the prices of these products exported by Brazil, Argentina and other
Latin-American states. Likewise, the drop in the wholesale prices of non-
ferrous metals in the United States will be reflected in a similar fall in the
quotations of copper and other metals produced in Latin America. A

consequence, then, of the greater inflation in the nations to our south will
probably be a more serious fall in prices. It is possible, of course, that in
certain countries domestic events will continue to exercise an overriding
inflationary influence. Failing an extensive readjustment in their price
structure, however, these nations will encounter even more grave difficul¬
ties than their present ones in maintaining their existing exchange rates.

The rapid increase in American production beginning in early 1946
and the prompt relaxation of export controls quickly permitted a flow of
goods to that area in such volume that payment for them could be ef¬
fected only by drawing heavily upon accumulated dollar balances. Colombia,

whose gold and foreign-exchange reserves increased from 110 million pesos
in 1942 to 309 million in 1945, suffered a fall in these reserves to 217 mil¬
lion at the end of 1947 and to 167 million by November 1948. Nicaragua’s
dollar reserves are now reported as exhausted. Argentina found it necessary
in the past winter to suspend all payments in dollars for a period of about
one month. In fact, with few exceptions, the Latin-American republics
considered it necessary to impose stringent restrictions on imports of
American goods. Despite these measures to balance their international ac¬
counts, several countries, notably Mexico, Colombia, Argentina and Uru¬
guay have allowed some depreciation of their currency during the past
year. The future, moreover, does not promise much respite for these nations
in their international payment difficulties. Since the prices of their raw
materials and foodstuffs will probably drop farther than the prices of their
manufactured imports, we can look for the wartime improvement in the
Latin-American terms of trade to reverse itself. As the prices they receive
go down relative to the prices they pay, the difficulties of maintaining the
dollar value of their currencies will be augmented.

18

The Texas Journal of Science

Having lost a large part of their gold and dollar reserves, our Latin-
American neighbors can finance new purchases of industrial and agricul¬
tural equipment for their economic development and maintain the rate of
progress of the last ten years only if the value of their exports remains
high, or if the debit items decline, or if they will accept investment of
foreign capital in their areas. To a limited extent, they would benefit from
the establishment of convertibility for European currencies. The countries
of the River Plate region normally have a favorable trade balance with
European nations, and most of the Brazilian favorable balance of 40 million
dollars in 1948 was in non-convertible currencies. This problem will largely
disappear as European industrial capacity is restored and European exporters
again supply an important part of the requirements of the Latin-American
area for machinery, but the re-establishment of convertibility would permit
the acquisition of the required equipment more easily in the cheapest
markets.

The continuation of Latin-American economic development will be
promoted, furthermore, by additional investments of foreign capital. Politi¬
cal instability, however, and the opposition of political regimes to new
foreign investment may create an atmosphere not inviting to foreign in¬
vestors and by doing so retard their economic growth. When investment is
sought, care must be exercised in the use of the funds to assure their pro¬
ductivity. The new capital expenditures must yield, moreover, not merely
greater output per worker but increased exports (or decreased imports)
providing greater supplies of foreign exchange for the service of foreign
debts and the payment of reasonable profits to parent corporations abroad.
In conclusion, it may be noted that the United States did not develop as
an important industrial nation in a decade or even a generation. It is un¬
reasonable to expect that the Latin-American states can effect their eco¬
nomic growth in a shorter period of time.

To summarize, the economic development of Latin America faces many
complex problems, varying in nature and degree among the different na¬
tions. The utilization of sparsely settled lands awaits the development of
better transportation facilities for carrying the products to market and for
bringing in the necessary supplies. Greater amounts of cheap power, fuel
and water must be made available for the development of industry. Immi¬
gration must proceed at a faster pace than in recent decades, and in some
cases land reforms must be accomplished before any large amount of immi¬
gration can be absorbed within the counties. Educational programs of
both technical and general character must be greatly expanded, and a higher
degree of political stability achieved. Finally, ways must be found to finance
the acquisition of capital equipment so needed to raise the productivity of
the area. The most rapid and the greatest measure of progress can be
achieved by these nations through economic cooperation with the rest of
the world and the avoidance of a recurrence of the intense economic nation¬
alism that developed in the 1930’s.

LITERATURE CITED

Harris, Seymour — 1944 — Economic problems of Latin America. New York, McGraw-Hill.

Hill, Lawrence F. — 1947 — Brazil. Univ. of Calif. Press.

Spiegel, Henry W. — 1949 — The Brazilian economy. Philadelphia. Blakiston.

Brazilian Bulletin. Brazilian Government Trade Bureau, New York.

Atmospheric Electricity

19

Economic development in selected countries. U. N. Dept, of Economic Affairs, Chapters on
Mexico, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Peru and Venezuela. (Lake Success, New
York, 1947).

Federal Reserve Bulletin.

Foreign Commerce Weekly. U. S. Dept, of Commerce.

Handbook of Latin American population data. Office of Inter-American Affairs, Washington,
D. C., 1945.

Revista del Banco de la Republica. Bogota, Columbia.

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY

W. F. Helwig
University of Texas

During eighteen years in West Texas, the writer has been interested
in atmospheric electricity and has had an opportunity to carry out experi¬
mental work in this field. Most of the work was done in connection with a
research program at Texas Technological College and was essentially a study
of electrostatic effects under conditions of low humidity.

The most obvious phenomena originating from "natural charges” are
lightning strokes, which are accumulations on a grand scale, while the
common sand storm charges which, although much smaller in potential
and charge-content, are quite annoying in West Texas and interfere with
cotton processing.

Although electrical charge formation in nature is as old as the earth
itself, little progress was made in explaining these effects until the discovery
of the electron, and only during the past twenty years sufficient quantita¬
tive data have been collected by numerous experimenters in various parts
of the world to permit a formulation of an acceptable general theory.
C. T. R. Wilson (1929) and Simpson and Scrase (1937, 1941) published
some original data on thunderstorms and arrived at a theory of charge
formation. A modification of this theory by Humphreys (1939) appears
to agree in general with the conclusions of other observers.

Briefly it is this: Wind approaching a thunder cloud is deflected up¬
wards at a velocity too great to permit the fall of rain drops in its path.
The drops are broken up by the jet of air, the spray particles becoming neg¬
atively charged with respect to air. As the wind travels higher into the
cloud, its velocity decreases and its charge is given up to the vapor par¬
ticles high up in the cloud formation. Between the upper and the lower
portions of the rain cloud, observation balloons have detected a region of
subzero temperatures, containing ice crystals, which serves as an insulating
barrier between the upper (positive) and lower (negative) portions of the
cloud. This distribution explains also the potential gradients along the
earth in the path of an approaching storm cloud. This gradient is positive
in advance of the cloud, negative directly under it and again positive beyond
the trailing tip.

Although under fair weather conditions a gradient of 30 kilovolts
per centimeter is required to cause ionization in air, measured values dur¬
ing thunder storms have indicated that 10 kilovolts per centimeter are

20

The Texas Journal oe Science

sufficient to cause break-dov/n within a cloud formation and this is thus
the critical value which initiates the lightning stroke. The final path taken
is governed by the geometry of the electrostatic field.

Concentration of the field above tall structures produces leader strokes
from the structure, whereas on level ground the leader appears at a cloud
tip. Once ionization starts, the length of path shortens, finally resulting in
an arc. After the arc is established a low potential can maintain a flow
of current and redistribution charges within the cloud formation may per¬
mit several strokes between the same points in rapid succession. In order
to form some idea of the magnitude involved, a table with reference
sources is given below.

Maximum current
Maximum charge
Maximum voltage
Maximum energy (est)
Wave front

160,000 amperes
160 coulombs
5,000,000 volts
2 50 kwh.

W.T.D. (1944)
K.B.McE. (1941)
R.P.-J.J.T. (1931)
B.E.&A.I. (1941)
J.H.C.-E.B. (1944)

143 kv per micro-sec.
Velocity of initial streamer 1.5 x 107 cm/sec.

Time to Vi % of initial current 200 micro-sec. C.F.W.-E.B. (1939)

The writer’s experiments in the field of "natural charges” were con¬
fined to laboratory measurements with frictional apparatus (W.F.H., 1948).
Readings of accumulated potentials as well as average electron flow were
made employing a cotton friction disk mounted on a polystyrene disk.

Atmospheric Electricity

21

Various materials were employed as frictional electrodes and rate of
charge flow under different conditions of humidity and temperature was
recorded. Conclusions from a large number of readings indicated that the
release of electrons from materials depends to a great extent on the avail¬
able outer-shell electrons in the atom. This theory appears to be substanti¬
ated also by an examination of Tribo-electnc Series (Smithsonian Physical
Tables). The table below gives a few of the materials listed and the numbers
on the left are those used in the above reference. The electron affinity figures
are also given as shown in this reference except the two starred, which were
computed by the writer.

No.

Material

Electron

Affinity

Contact

Potential

Outer Shell
Electrons

14

Al

3.06

0.99

3

Zn

3.46

0.59

2

17

Cotton

3.8*

0.25*

20

Fe

3.86

0.19

2

25

Slate

3.9*

0.17*

L

28

Cu

4.00

0.05

1

32

Ag

4.05

0.00 Base

1

Readings of frictional effects taken by the writer can be shown best
on a graph. For reasonable comparison, all readings had to be taken under
the same conditions of humidity although normal variations in temperature
showed little influence on the results. Aluminum, with three outer shell
electrons, appears to give three distinct slopes in the velocity range covered,
while both zinc and iron show two. Copper, with one electron, has prac¬
tically a constant slope over the range, and all seem to converge to the
same value around 700 to 800 centimeters per second. Within this range
no "saturation effect” was observed and the transfer of charges was limited
only by the available speed of the motor. Employing a disk eight centi¬
meters in diameter, potential differences of 10,000 volts were read on the
electrostatic voltmeter and estimates of 60,000 were reached with a series
condenser. The line for slate, a composite material, shows the expected
irregularity for non-homogeneous substance.

Applying the results of these studies to lightning phenomena we find:
air, being chiefly nitrogen, should become positively charged when flow¬
ing in a region of water droplets. As the air flows upward it passes thru
the icy region which is highly non-conductive, absorbing little of the
positive charge carried. Thus most of this is carried to the upper part of
the cloud. The physical separation of the charges by the wind energy
produces the high potentials encountered in the cloud formation.

Although the writer has not had an opportunity to experiment with
air streams, data obtained from frictional effects on material surfaces in¬
dicate that it is possible to obtain a transfer of about 109 electrons per
square centimeter of contact surface. The total charge would depend on the
velocity of surface transfer and up to at least seven meters per second
shows a continuous increase. Some electrification of highly insulating ma¬
terials was observed but these charges could be measured only by means
of very sensitive instruments.

22

The Texas Journal of Science

Dust storm charges are somewhat similar to lightning with this differ¬
ence: the dust particles are sufficiently unlike to prevent any large accumu¬
lations of like charges from appearing in any one region. Although dust
clouds of considerable magnitude affected by winds of high velocity have
been encountered, the charges are subject to a random distribution and the
low humidity prevailing requires a high potential gradient to produce
ionization. Readings taken on about a 5 0 foot line some 2 5 feet above
ground gave no indication of a predominant polarity. Rather, the dust
particles discharged at a rapid rate with an occasional heavy discharge of
one polarity and then another. Heavy charges would break down gaps of
one-quarter to one-half inch and have been known to cause flash-over on
high voltage transmission lines.

LITERATURE CITED

British Electrical and Allied Industries Research — 1941 — Surge phenomena.

Cox, J. H. and E. Beck — 1930 — Lightning on transmission lines. A.I.E.E. Trans. 49: 944.
Helwig, W. F. — 1948 — Some experiments in frictional electricity. Electrical Engineering-
67 (1) : 38.

Humphries, W. J. — 1939 — On the origin and distribution of thunderstorm electricity. Month¬
ly Weather Rev. 67 : 321.

McEachron, K. B. — 1941 — Lightning to the Empire State Building. A.I.E.E. Trans. 60: 885.
Pittman, R. and J. J. Torock — 1931 — Lightning investigations on a wood pole transmission
line. A.I.E.E. Trans. 50 : 568.

Simpson, Sir George and F. J. Scrase — 1937 — The distribution of electricity in thunder
clouds. Proc. Royal Soc. 161 (906) : Series A.

Smithsonian Physical Tables (Seventh revised edition). Tables 395-519. Washington, D. C.
Westinghouse Co. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book — 1944 — Chap. 12.
Wilson, C. T. R. — 1920 — Investigations on lightning discharges and on the electrical field of
thunderstorms. Phil. Trans., Royal Soc. 221. Series A.

NATURAL SCIENCES IN THE EMERGING CURRICULUM

G. P. Parker

Education and Psychology Department
The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas

The American public school and its curriculum are organized and
controlled by society, but they function mainly for the purpose of inte¬
grating pupils as adjusted members of society. The continuation of this
institution can be justified only by the service rendered to the democratic
social order in which it must remain.

Democratic society by no means depends completely on the school
system for the entire task of educating the oncoming generation. Such
agencies as the home, the Church, the movies, the radio, television, the
newspaper or magazine, the street, the playground, and the shop have
very significant roles to play in the total educational process affecting the
youth. The school system, however, is the institutionalized agency formally
commissioned by society to perform the chief and most systematic educa¬
tional service. The school, therefore, has the responsibility not only of in¬
struction in the fundamentals; but of giving a balanced training and in
some cases of providing education which definitely counteracts the effects
of anti-social education.

Natural Sciences in the Emerging Curriculum

23

As society continues to emerge from one generation into that of an¬
other, it becomes necessary for the school to emerge with it and to revise
its curriculum to meet the needs of the present generation. Too often, the
curriculum tenaciously retains traditionally established subjects taught by
antiquated methods preparing pupils for a society of past generations.

Teachers most often are inclined to teach by methods with which
they are best acquainted, and parents may demand that their children have
the same kind of education that they themselves received when they at¬
tended school. Traditional subjects and methods have a prestige which makes
it difficult to displace them or even to modify.

According to a recent report published by the Federal Security Agency,
Office of Education, our high schools do not make sense for sixty per
cent of our pupils. The nation’s high schools must revise their courses
completely to meet the needs of youth today.

A recent survey made for the LJ. S. Office of Education shows that
5 50 out of every 1,000 pupils withdraw before graduating from high
school; the reason is that they fail to find the curriculum interesting, satis¬
fying, and challenging. Most pupils feel that the curriculum offered is
highly abstract and has little functional value. Citizenship training was
found to be the weakest link in our educational program, and required
courses too frequently are little more than exercises in memory without
stress on interpretation and relationship to the contemporary society. Too
few courses are functional in helping youth to fill his place in society.
College preparatory curricula are dominant even in centers where very few
students go to college.

The fore-mentioned report recommended that the pupil be taught in
school to acquire salable skills and an intelligent understanding of economic
life. High school should also make him familiar with the contributions of
science, cultivate in him an appreciation of art, literature, music, nature,
and develop his ability in the various areas of communication- — reading,
writing, listening, and speaking. He should learn to purchase, to use goods
and services wisely, and to have respect for human personality, so that he
will exhibit a high degree of tolerance, cooperation, and good will.

If the natural sciences are to take their places in the emerging curricu¬
lum, it will become necessary to reorganize subject matter content to meet
the needs and interests of present day life. Science in most schools continues
to follow the most traditional of all plans of curriculum organization-— the
Subject Matter Curriculum. Meanwhile five other types of curricula have
developed. Some are relatively conservative departures from the Subject
Matter Curriculum; others are revolutionary innovations indeed. What are
these plans, and what do they offer the science curriculum?

1. The subject matter curriculum. This was the earliest curriculum
of the European and American schools and continues as the predominant
type. Many science specialists believe that their subject should be taught
to transfer knowledge and are of the opinion that there should be no differ¬
entiation in subject matter requirements for individual pupils, those who
go to college, or for those who do not.

24

The Texas Journal of Science

Science subjects are arranged in order of supposedly progressing diffi¬
culty and are taught independently of each other. General science in the
ninth grade, biology in the tenth, and chemistry and physics in the upper
two years has been a sequence no ordinary science teacher has dared to
violate.

2. The correlated curriculum. The first and, perhaps, the most con¬
servative attempt to revise the curriculum has been that which gave a vote
of confidence to the subject and departmental organization by establishing
some common avenues to connect one subject field to another.

The English teacher for decades has been wanting teachers in other
departments to help assume the responsibility for language proficiency.
This has come closer to being a joint responsibility as correlation has be¬
come more popular. However, the natural sciences have been reluctant to
attempt correlation except in a few instances. For example, chemistry and
physics parallel the study of atoms, electricity, gases, heat, and pressure.

3. The fused curriculum. The second step away from the subject
curriculum is fusion. The fused course replaces a number of subjects pre¬
viously offered in either one or a number of different subject fields and
draws heavily upon the replaced subject matter for content.

Fusion in the high school sciences saw general science orientate the
pupil into both biological and physical sciences, and botany and zoology
into biology. As indicated in these examples, fusion has been in the past
almost exclusively the combination of courses within the same field. The
fused course, as spoken of in the most progressive sense, refers to the
course that replaces a number of subjects formerly taught in unrelated
departments. In a great number of instances social studies, natural sciences,
and art have been and can further be fused into one course.

4. The broad -fields curriculum. The broad-fields curriculum repre¬
sents a definite reaction to the great multiplicity of separate subjects that
were looked upon a few years ago as the answer to individual needs and
interests. It indicated setting out a portion of the curriculum as essential
for all and then arranging this common material into a few broad courses.
For instance, assume that the three areas of the instructional program are
to be:

a. Man’s social relations

b. Man’s relations with the universe

c. General arts

A radical departure from the subject curriculum might consider man’s
social relations from a unit approach, beginning in the first grade with the
individual’s relation with his home and leading to the study of world prob¬
lems in the senior high school. The second area-— man’s relationship with
the universe — would not retain isolated subjects in science but would start
in the first grade and make its approach through the individual’s relation¬
ship to the world of science. It would be closely related to the first area and
would treat the use and conservation of human as well as natural resources.

5. The core curriculum. The provision of a common body of growth

Natural Sciences in the Emerging Curriculum

25

experiences, usually spoken of as the core curriculum, is gaining popularity
as a fundamental step in curriculum reorganization.

The core curriculum presupposes certain specific types of learning ex¬
periences as basic for all pupils going through the school but does not
necessarily mean a common fixed body of content for all. It might be
said that the core idea endorses a broad area of experiences rather than the
specific experiences within that area, and generally refers to one broad-
field which is set out as superior to any other broad-field and operates as a
center around which the other broad-fields revolve. Numerous broad-fields
have been proposed as the core around which all of the other fields should
operate. On frequency of occurrence the social studies rank first, science
studies second, and reading third. Obviously, social and science studies rep¬
resent content areas. Little attempt has been made to champion those
fields which represent primarily skills and appreciation areas.

6. The experience curriculum. The experience curriculum is the one
type which definitely rejects the subject matter approach. It is more diffi¬
cult to describe than any other type due to the fact that promoting the
best all-around growth of the child in a continuously changing learning
situation is one of its fundamental concepts. This makes for less agreement
among its advocates in both theory and practice than that found among
proponents of other types of curriculum in which consideration is given
more to the total growth of the learner and to fixed-in-advance learning
situations.

In the experience curriculum the selection, development, and direction
of the experience are a cooperative undertaking in which pupils and teach¬
ers work together under teacher-guidance. The experience is selected on the
spot by pupils and teachers who compose the particular learning group,
and it should be designed to serve the needs of all pupils regardless of in¬
terest and abilities. Possibly the greatest advocate of this type of curricu¬
lum would be Einstein.

Science in the emerging curriculum as revealed by the President’s
Scientific Research Board shows that instead of a twelve-year science pro¬
gram, beginning in Grade One, relatively few children receive any organ¬
ized science instruction until Grade Seven. In the earlier grades science
teaching is in many places incidental. Sometimes it appears as part of the
reading program and sometimes as the lesser adjunct in a social studies unit.
Well trained elementary school teachers of science are few. Courses of
study and textbooks show the kind of wide variation which is character¬
istic of an early stage of development. Equipment is either non-existent
or inadequate. Teaching procedures are not well designed. There is an al¬
most total absence of concern about locating, stimulating, and providing
guidance for children with potential talent in science. The only encourag¬
ing sign is a widespread and heightening interest in science.

The Board found in the secondary schools an overcrowded curriculum,
in which science is hardly represented to a degree in keeping with the
needs of our times. All available data indicate that the percentage of high
school pupils enrolled in science courses has been declining. The typical
pupil takes two science courses during four years of work, one in general

26

The Texas Journal of Science

science and one in biology. The contribution which physical science can
make to his education is not recognized beyond the elementary concepts
treated in general science. A small number take the course in chemistry or
physics at the eleventh or twelfth grade level, but the courses seem to be
poorly designed for purposes of general education and fail to serve the
needs of the talented pupils of the group. Very little attention is paid to
the experimental methods of science or to the development of scientific
habits and attitudes. The secondary schools rarely offer training in science
beyond the initial courses in biology, chemistry, or physics.

Data are available which show conclusively that the subject matter
studied in the public school bears no relationship to success in college; but
that scholastic aptitude, habits of work, intellectual maturity, competent
use of the mother tongue, and sense of personal and social responsibility
are factors of validity. Conclusions drawn from scientific studies eestablish
beyond question that the public schools need not be controlled by the tra¬
ditional content and procedures.

As evidence accumulates showing that the subject matter of the sub¬
ject curriculum bears little relationship to success in college, and as organi¬
zations representing the welfare of youth increasingly demand freedom from
college domination, the public schools should be free to minister to the
needs of American youth. If science is to find its place in the emerging
curriculum, it will necessitate a complete reorganization of the science
program. In the area of science this will mean more functional programs.
The present specialized chemistry and physics courses will be replaced by
generalized science courses stressing the practical phases which are func¬
tional in daily living.

In view of the fact that only 20 per cent of the pupils who graduate
from the high school enter college and 80 per cent will receive no further
general education, it is evident that the general science and biology offered
are inadequate as a preparation for living in the highly scientific environ¬
ment of today. Chemistry and physics should be fused into a single course
so as to permit a broadened science program including additional study in
elementary geology, meteorology, and a broadened and functional study of
health and consumer science. According to such a plan science will be
considered a core throughout the twelve grades of the public school sys¬
tem, and learning experiences will be adapted to the maturity and back¬
ground of the pupils. In a well planned and coordinated science program
throughout the twelve grades, the average graduate of our high schools
should possess functional science knowledge equal to that of students who
have completed the junior college at the present time. By the end of the
sixth grade pupils' can achieve growth in science equivalent to that possessed
by the average ninth grade pupil after spending one year studying general
science as it is taught today. Considerable science knowledge and under¬
standing can be economically taught at lower grade levels than is now the
practice.

LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous — nd. — High school, what’s in it for me. Federal Security Agency, Office of Edu¬
cation. Washington, D. C.

- - 1948 — School life. Federal Security Agency, Office of Education, Vol. 31, De¬
cember. Washington, D. C.

A Definition of International Education

27

- - 1949 — Atomic energy here to stay. Federal Security Agency, Office of Edu¬
cation, vol. 31, March. Washington, D. C.

Fine, Benjamin — 1947 — Our children are cheated. Henry Holt and Co.

Russell, J. D. and C. H. Judd — 1940 — The American educational system. Houghton Mifflin
Company. New York, N. Y.

Science Teacher, The — Vol. 14, No. 1, 1947
Vol. 14, No. 4, 1947
Vol. 15, No. 1, 1948
Vol. 15, No. 3, 1948

Spears, Harold — 1948- — The emerging high school curriculum and its directives. American
Book Company. New York, N. Y.

A DEFINITION OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

By Spencer Stoker
Professor of Education
Texas State College for Women

The term "international education” has become a commonly employed
term and like most terms that have become popular usage, it has acquired
a vagueness of meaning that permits too much loose thinking. It is not
the purpose of this paper to set up a final and accurate definition of the
term, but rather to describe the conditions out of which the term has
evolved and to offer a tentative definition that may be acceptable.

It may be of assistance, by way of establishing background, to examine
the meaning of the word nationality in its societal significance. As feudal¬
ism gave way to kingdoms in Western Europe, the migrations and fixings
of the masses were greatly restricted. This resulted in developing homoge¬
nous people within the confines of each kingdom. The people, through blood
relationships, looked alike. One was identified as belonging to this or that
kingdom because of the color of one’s hair, eyes, or skin. These marks of
identity are what are called ethnic qualities.

With the passing of time the word kingdom acquired a new meaning
and a new name. The new name was "nation.” This meant that the ethnic
unity that had developed within the kingdoms prevailed within each na¬
tion. One was a Frenchman because one looked like a Frenchman. The ac¬
cident of one’s birth fixed one’s nationality. One was a subject, citizen, or
national of whatever nation one’s ethnic characteristics decreed. There was
no choice, one was fixed.

With the coming of modern times and the elaboration of the means of
communication, men began to find homes outside the borders of their
ethnic home or nation. As new nations established themselves the practice
of soliciting immigrants became common. Unhappy people of old countries
or nations were permitted to seek new homes across the sea.

As the number and strength of modern nations increased, and as the
democratic concept spread, the practice of accepting citizens, or nationals
through the process of naturalization was more or less universally accepted
by the governments of the nations. This type of citizenship or nationality
may be identified as a political nationality. Man’s ethnic qualities no longer
determined his nationality. Now, in general, he was free to choose his
nation or nationality. Fie could flee from oppression or he could seek the
land of promise.

28

The Texas Journal of Science

Under these conditions nationality became a matter of individual de¬
cision, a matter of the individual mind. Thus internationalism became food
for thought for the masses, whereas it had been a matter of concern only
to the government officials during the time that ethnic nationality had
prevailed. When the individual mind could think of choices in the realm of
internationalism it soon extended itself into the various realms of human in¬
terest; interest in religion, in social welfare, in economics, in war, in peace,
in political opportunity, and in health, and education as these interests
identified themselves with idiologies and practices in foreign nations. Here
it is that international education strikes root in the speculation and fancies
of thinking man. He compares, contrasts, criticizes, and evaluates within
his ever expanding international frame of reference.

With citizenship becoming a choice of the adult mind, the frame of
reference of man’s speculation has been extended to include the world as a
whole. The revelations coming from the study of the sciences and human¬
ities are constantly enlarging man’s frame of reference. As each individual’s
frame of reference is extended he seeks more and more to put himself into
a position that synchronizes more satisfyingly with his enlarged perspective.

Through the interpretation of these tendencies with the concept of po¬
litical nationality, a new emphasis upon the individual’s relation to inter¬
nationalism emerges. Through his national government (democratic govern¬
ment) the individual insists that everything be done to enhance the inter¬
national emoluments which he may covet. Increasingly the individual visual¬
izes his sovereign rights (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness) in terms
of international relations.

In support of these concepts references may be made to the develop¬
ments in international trade and communication, the growing interest in
international travel and human relationships, and the establishment of
centers of study and research in foreign countries. Special emphasis should
be placed also upon the deliberate efforts of governments to direct their
persuasive appeals directly to the populations of the world by way of the
radio. These appeals are made to the individual, not necessarily to the na¬
tional governments. Frequently, significant policies and decisions of nations
are announced to the world of men before the traditional courtesy of giv¬
ing them diplomatic considerations is observed.

Running parallel with the above considerations are the policies of
national education systems. More and more each nation is accepting the
philosophy that education is the nation’s first line of defense against all
enemies — man or microbe. So universal has this philosophy become that
each nation is actively sensitive to the educational philosophy of each mem¬
ber of the family of nations. No longer is a nation free to educate its
citizens independently. It must take into account the prevailing policies
and practices of comparable nations everywhere. Not only the team-work
that may be taught but the attitude of the individual mind must be care¬
fully and constantly in review. A major concern of the nations of the
world today is "What is each man thinking?”

Perhaps one of the most active laboratories of international education
is the one afforded by the political minority groups of the people of the

Effects of Radiation Upon the Blood

29

world. Since the first World War minority groups have been sources of
growing anxiety to the responsible nations of the world. National political
idiologies are constantly influencing directly, or indirectly, dissatisfied mi¬
norities. The Marshall plan is in operation largely because of the influence
of these ideologies. Nationally and internationally propaganda of many
sorts is being directed to individuals of the minority groups. Those types
of propaganda which are of a democratic nature are constantly emphasiz¬
ing the rights of the individual— -the inalienable rights of man. The in¬
creasing heterogenitv of ethnic characteristics is contributing to the wan¬
ing differences between peoples of different racial backgrounds. Who is
different from whom? Whose rights are different from the rights of others?
More and more the individual is being supported in his emergence as the
average international man.

Closely related to the minority groups in their influence upon the
concept of international education are the groups of people designated as
displaced persons. Many national governments are actively concerned with
the disposition of the displaced person— the man without a country, yet
the man who deserves one. International agreements are being made to re¬
store to the displaced person the right of a national home which can mean
the subordination of national sovereignty to the inalienable rights of the
individual.

The Nurenberg and similar trials of World War II criminals are other
examples illustrating the growing belief that the rights of man take prece¬
dence over the authority of the nation. In these trials the codes of inter¬
national law were amended to include concepts dealing with the laws of
humanity. It would then appear from the conduct of these trials that the
rights of man have prevailed over the rights of nations.

Based upon this brief and sketchy empirical approach to the meaning
of international education, it appears that the word "national” may be
eliminated from the term "international education.” If this were done and
the word "individual” or "man” were substituted for it, the term would
be "inter-individual education” or "itner-man education.” Going one step
further, any qualifying word might be eliminated, leaving only the word
"education” which might be defined as that activity through which the
mind reacts to its frame of reference, the world as a whole.

EFFECTS OF RADIATION UPON THE BLOOD

M. Jeanne Fairweather, R. N.

Incarnate Word College
Winner of First Prize
Collegiate Division, 1948

INTRODUCTION

Man is constantly in search of the secrets of life and death. For cen¬
turies he has sought to find or devise means to defeat the forces of disease
and destruction. Although he has succeeded in finding the cause of many
diseases, and the cure for some, his relentless search goes on. Among the
newer treatments, and one which gives great promise as a means of com-

3 0 The Texas Journal of Science

bating numerous diseases, is the X-ray. At the present time, other types
of radiations, especially the various forms of radioactive isotypes, are be¬
coming more and more important, both in medicine and in everyday life.
These radiations useful in treating many types of disease, also produce a
number of harmful side effects, one of which is an alteration of the blood
picture.

In spite of the hazard of blood damage as an undesirable side effect of
radiation therapy, until recently few data were compiled on the changes
to be expected from regular X-ray therapy. Interest in this field of research
was stimulated by the work of Heineke (1903), who described the damage
caused by X-ray in the hemopoietic (blood forming) organs, and that of
Senn (1903) who discovered that X-ray produced beneficial effects in
human leukemia. In recent years, numerous papers have appeared which
treat of occupational exposure, therapeutic exposure, and the experimental
exposure of laboratory animals.

A typical example of results due to occupational exposure is the case
reported by Weill and Lacassagne (1924) of two chemists, who worked
for years with radioactive substances without any protection. They died
within five days of one another. The death of one was due to aplastic
anemia and that of the other to myelogenous leukemia, both of which are
diseases of the blood resulting from prolonged exposure to radiation. Dickie
and Hemplemann (1948) published the results of their research upon
persons exposed to ionizing diation at atomic bomb plants. They reported
an interesting change in the lymphocytes of exposed workers. The lympho¬
cytes of these individuals showed a larger number of refractive neutral red
bodies than those of unexposed subjects. The total leucocyte count of the
exposed workers showed a significant decrease, but differential counts re¬
vealed no difference in the percentage of lymphocytes.

The reported results relative to the effects of radiation therapy on the
blood of patients closely resemble those obtained by the experimental ex¬
posure of laboratory animals. The local treatment of tumors and cancer,
for example, does not usually cause severe blood changes, such as result
from large and total doses from irradiation of the entire body, or from the
internal use of radioactive isotypes. In treating patients, it is found that
high radiation dosage will reduce the cells of all types in the blood and
change the plasma constituents. Wyman Richardson and Robbins (1948)
reported that although the white blood count fell almost at once, the
patients did not show a significant change in the red blood count and
hemoglobin levels until a month or two after the termination of the treat¬
ment.

Every type of radiation change found in the human blood has also
been produced in laboratory animals.

Nettleship (1944) studied blood changes in mice, whose entire body
was exposed to low dosages of X-rays. According to his report, the average
pre-experimental counts were as follows:

Leukocytes 11,5 50 Lymphocytes 6,800 Neutrophils 4,500
After exposure to X-rays, there was an abrupt rise in all three, followed by

Effects of Radiation Upon the Blood

31

a sharp fall. The leukocytes reached their lowest level in 4 to 5 days. How¬
ever, slight leukopenia due to lack of lymphocytes existed throughout the
period of observation. Considerably more than two weeks was needed for
the mouse to recover from the mild lymphopenia.

GRAPHS

LEUKOCYTES

im
14,000
12,000
11,550
10,000
8,000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 days

UMPHOCYTBS

9

8

7,850

5

4

3

2

1

§1

0 123456 7 89 10 11 12 13 14 days

NEUTROPHILS

10

1

0 123456789 10 11 12 13 14 days

As can be seen by the graphs, observations taken six hours after radia¬
tion conflicted with findings a day later. Therefore, it is extremely im¬
portant that repeated determinations be made over short intervals of time.

The order of decreasing radio-activity of blood cells and their decreas¬
ing ability to recover from injury, was found to be as follows:

32

The Texas Journal of Science

LYMPHOCYTES GRANULOCYTES ERYTHROCYTES

Warren (1948) observed that lymphopenia (decrease in lymphocytes)
appeared in a few minutes after heavy X-ray, granulopenia (decrease in
granulocytes) after a few hours, and ervthropenia (decrease in erythrocytes)
after several days or weeks.

It is important to note that these changes were in some cases progres¬
sive for weeks without further radiation.

Experiments to determine the effects of X-radiation on the blood of
mice have been carried on in our school laboratory during the past six
months. In all of the experiments, the animals were subjected to total
body radiation. This was accomplished by placing six mice in a covered,
light cardboard box which, because of its shallowness, prevented the mice
from shielding one another. Radiation was delivered at the rate of 50 r per
minute by using the following conditions: 200 k.v., 16 m.a., 50 cm. skin
target distance, 0.5 mm. cu., 1 mm. al filters. The total dose of radiation
in each case was 200 r which was applied in a single exposure. In the first
series of experiments the blood studies consisted only of total leucocyte and
differential counts. For all counts, tail blood was employed. Differential
counts were made on air-dried blood films stained with Wright’s stain.
Pre-experimental control counts were made on each of the thirty-six mice
used.

Experimental counts were performed on the day following irradiation
and also on the 17th, 24th, 3 8th, and 5 5th days. In a second series of experi¬
ments, the blood studies included not only total leucocytes and differential
counts, but also erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin determinations. Pre-
experimental blood studies were made on all of the animals used. Experi¬
mental studies were made on the date following irradiation, again on the
6th day, and finally on the 13 th day.

The total leucocyte counts showed considerable variations, but the
average pre-experimental counts for the first series of experiments was
15,610 per cu. mm. There were slight variations in the differential counts
but in general, there were about 83% lymphocytes and 17% neytrophils.
On the day following irradiation, the total leucocyte count was 3,886 per
cu. mm., while the differential count showed 72% lymphocytes and 28 %
neutrophils. In subsequent counts, both the total leucocyte and the differ¬
ential counts gradually increased toward the normal.

The complete results for the second series of experiments are shown
in the following table:

DIFFERENTIAL

Total

Leuco. Lymph. Neutro. Erythrocyte Hemoglobin

Pre-exp. 24,814 77 23 8,746,000 89%

Day after

X-ray .... . . 8,580 60 40 9,740,000 87%

6th day ” _ 4,956 57 42 7,800,000 85.5%

13th ” ” 7,168 73 27 7,658,000 85.4%

SlPHONAPTERA OF TEXAS

33

One can see from this table that, in general, the results obtained con¬
firm those of other workers. All of the published records report a significant
decrease in the total leucocyte count following radiation. In our results,
as in those cited in the literature, the decrease in total leucocyte count was
due chiefly to a destruction of lymphocytes. Richardson and Warren (1948)
found that the erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin levels of human patients
showed no significant change until a month or two following the termina¬
tion of treatment. In our work, there was a slight increase in red cell count
immediately after irradiation which was followed by a gradual but not
very marked decrease a few days later. The hemoglobin level showed a
slight decrease on the day following the treatment and continued to de¬
crease gradually thereafter.

CONCLUSION

The experiments reported in this paper were preliminary to the work
now being carried on in an attempt to overcome, by means of injections of
beef spleen extract, some of the harmful side efferts of radiation therapy
on the blood picture. It is hoped that we may have some favorable results
to report at a later date.

LITERATURE CITED

Dickie, A. and L. H. Hempleman — 1947 — Morphological changes in lymphocytes of persons
exposed to ionizing radiation. Jour. Lab. and Clinical Med. 32 : 1045-1047.

Heineke, H. — 1903 — Ueber die Einwirkungder der Roentgenstrahlen auf Tiere. Muenchen. med.
Wehnschr. 50: 2090-2092.

Lacassagne, A. and J. Lavaden — 1924 — Les modifications histologiques du sang consecutives
aux irradiations experimentals. Paris Med. 51 : 97.

Nettleship, A. — 1944 — Tissue changes produced in C3H mice by 50 r whole body exposure.

6 pp.

Richardson, Wyman and Lawrence Robbins — 1948 — Treatment of Polycthemia vera by spray
irradiation. N. E. Jour. Med. 238 : 78-82.

Senn, Nicholas — 1903 — Case of medullary leukemia successfully treated by Roentgen rays.
Med. Record 64: 281-282.

Warren, Shields — 1948 — Effects of radiation on the blood and the hemopoietic tissues. Rocky
Mountain Med. Jour. 45: 205-206.

A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE SlPHONAPTERA OF TEXAS"'

Richard B. Eads and George C. Menzies
State Department of Health
Austin, Texas

Due to the growing realization of the importance of endemic typhus
fever and the potential importance of sylvatic plague, attention has been
recently focused upon the species of fleas present in Texas. In 1945 and 1946
a cooperative typhus investigation was made in Lavaca County, Texas, by
the State Department of Health and the United States Public Health Service.
Of the pools of fleas tested, 3 5 percent of the Xenopsylla cbeopsis, 34 percent
of the pooled Leptopsylla segnis and 14 percent of the Echidnophaga
gallinacea were shown to contain typhus rickettsiae. During plague studies
carried on in Texas by the same agencies in 1947, 1948 and 1949, positive
pools of fleas were found in Gaines, Terry, Cochran and Yoakum Counties.

Unless otherwise stated, these records were made from 1945 through
July, 1949, by personnel of the State Department of Health or the U. S.

34

The Texas Journal of Science

Public Health Service assigned to Texas. Mr. V. I. Miles and Mr. Max
Wilcomb of the U. S. Public Health Service made many valuable contribu¬
tions.

Major Robert Traub, Army Medical Center, Washington, D. C. and
Mr. Frank M. Prince, U. S. Public Health Service, San Francisco, Cal., have
been generous with taxonomic assistance.

The family classification of Dr. Jordan (1948) is followed here as
modified by Traub. However, the families and their genera are listed alpha¬
betically.

Super-family CER AT OPH YLLOIDE A
Family ceratophyllidae
Dactylopsylla percernis Eads and Menzies, 1948.

Hosts: Pocket gophers, Crafogeomys castanops, Geomys bursarius; grass¬
hopper mouse, OnycJoomys leucogaster; domestic rat, Kattus norvegicus. Re¬
corded From: Armstrong, Gaines, Hartley, Lamb and Presidio Counties.

Diamanus montanus (Baker, 1895).

Flosts: Rock squirrel, Citellus variegatus; domestic rat, Kattus norvegicus.
Recorded From: Kimble, El Paso, Menard, Presidio and Terrell Counties.

Foxella ignota Baker 1895.

Hosts: Grasshopper mouse, OnycJoomys leucogaster and pack rat, Neotoma
micro pus.

Recorded From: Dawson County.

Jellisonia bullisi (Augustson, 1944).

Host: Oak mouse, Peromyscus pectoralis.

Recorded From: Bexar County, 1944, by G. F. Auguston.

Jellisonia irons i (Eads, 1946).

Host: Taylor mouse, Baiomys taylori.

Recorded From: Lavaca and Travis Counties.

Le ptopsylla segnis (Schonherr, 1 S 1 1 ) .

Hosts: Domestic rats, Kattus norvegicus and K. rattiis; domestic mouse,
Mils musculus.

Recorded From: Bastrop, Bell, Bexar, Brown, Caldwell, Cameron, Colorado,
Comal, Dillas, Galveston, Gonzales, Hardin, Harris, Henderson, Hous¬
ton, Jasper, Jefferson, Karnes, Lampasas, Lavaca, Lee, Liberty, Travis,
Victoria, Washington, Wharton and Williamson.

Monopsyllus exilis Jordan, 1937.

Hosts: Grasshopper mouse, OnycJoomys leucogaster; kangaroo rat, Dipodomys
ordii; wood rat, Neotoma micro pus; ground squirrels, Citellus spilosoma ,
Citellus tridecemlineatus.

* Based in part on a Dissertation presented by the senior author to the Agricultural and
Mechanical College of Texas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy,

SlPHONAPTERA OF TEXAS

35

Recorded From: Andrews, Cochran, Dawson, Gaines, Garza, Lamb, Pre¬
sidio, Terry and Yoakum Counties.

Monopsyllus wagneri Baker, 1904.

Host: Grasshopper mouse, Onychomys leucogaster ; white-footed mouse,
Peromyscus leucopus.

Recorded From: Dawson and Lamb Counties.

Nosopsyllus fasciatus (Bose, 1801).

Hosts: Domestic rats, Raft ns norvegicus and R. rattus.

Recorded From: Bexar, Bowie, Brown, Cameron, Comal, Dallas, Falls,
Galveston, Grey, Harris, Henderson, Houston, Lavaca, Limestone,
Lubbock, Madison, McLennan, Potter, Randal, Smith, Victoria, Wash¬
ington, Webb and Williamson Counties.

Opisocrostis hirsutus (Baker, 1895).

Hosts: Prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus; grasshopper mouse, Onychomys
leucogaster; cottontail, Sylvilagus audnboni.

Recorded From: Cochran, Dawson, Gaines, Hockley, Lubbock, Menard,
Terry and Yoakum Counties.

Orchopeas hoivardii (Baker, 1 895 ).

Hosts: Fox squirrel, Sciurus niger; raccoon, Procyon lot or; domestic dog,
Canis familiaris; opossum, Didelphis virginiana.

Recorded From: Anderson, Brazos, Freestone, Kerr, Kimble, Lavaca, Medina,
Menard, Uvalde and Williamson Counties.

Orchopeas leticopus (Baker, 1904).

Hosts: Pack rat nest, Neotoma sp. and Peromyscus sp.

Recorded From: Cameron and Howard Counties.

Orchopeas sexdentatus (Baker, 1904).

Hosts: Pack rats, Neotoma micropus and N. albigula; coyote, Canis latrans;
Mephitis mephitis; ring-tailed cat, Bas sari sens as tutus; grasshopper
mouse, Onychomys leucogaster ; prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus;
kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii; domestic rat, Rattus norvegicus; cotton¬
tail rabbit, Sylvilagus auduhoni.

Recorded From: Andrews, Aransas, Bexar, Cochran, Dawson, Gaines, Garza,
Howard, Hockley, Lamb, Lubbock, Lynn, Menard, Midland, Terry,
Uvalde and Yoakum Counties.

Peromyscopsylla hesperomys (Baker, 1904).

Host: Grasshopper mouse, Onychomys leucogaster.

Recorded From: Dawson and Howard Counties.

Thrassis campestris Prince, 1944.

Hosts: Grasshopper mice, Onychomys leucogaster; pack rat, Neotoma
micro pus; kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii; cottontail rabbit, Sylvilagus
auduboni.

Recorded From: Cochran, Gaines and Terry Counties.

36

The Texas Journal of Science

T brassis fotus (Jordan, 1925).

Hosts: Ground squirrels, Ci tel Iks mexhnanus , C. spilosoma; C. tridecemlinea-
tus ; wood rat, Neotoma micro pus; grasshopper mouse, Onychomys
leucogaster; kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii; cottontail rabbit, Sylvilagus
auduboni ; jack rabbit, Lepus calif or nicus; domestic rat, Rattus norvegi-
cus; pocket gopher, Geomys bur sarins; skunk, Mephitis mephitis.

Recorded From: Andrews, Bexar, Cochran, Cottle, Dallam, Dawson, Gaines,
Hockley, Lamb, Midland, Tom Green, Uvalde and Yoakum Counties.

T brassis pan sus (Jordan, 1925 ).

Hosts: F. M. Prince (1944) lists it from hosts Onychomys, Peromyscus,
Dipodomys, Neotoma and Cynomys.

Recorded From: Brewster County.

Family hystrichopsyllidae
Acteno phthal mus sp.

Host: Grasshopper mouse, Onychomys leucogaster.

Recorded From: Cochran and Yoakum Counties. Mr. F. M. Prince is describ¬
ing this species.

Anomio psyllus hiemalis Eads and Menzies, 1948,

Hosts: Pack rat, Neotoma micro pus; grasshopper mouse, Onychomys leuco¬
gaster; cottontail rabbit, Sylvilagus auduboni; prairie dog, Cynomys
ludovicianus; cotton rat, Sigmodon hispid us.

Recorded From: Andrews, Cochran, Dawson, Gaines, Garza, Lamb, Midland,
Terry and Yoakum Counties.

Megarthroglossus bisetis Jordan and Rothschild, 1915.

Host: Peromyscus sp.

Recorded From: In a personal communication Mr. F. M. Prince reports
taking one female specimen from Donley County in 1947.

Meringis arachis (Jordan, 1929).

Hosts: Banner- tailed kangaroo rat, Dipodomys spectabilis; wood rats,
Neotoma micropus and Neotoma sp.

Recorded From: El Paso and Gaines Counties.

Meringis bilsingi Eads and Menzies, 1949.

Hosts: Grasshopper mouse, Onychomys leucogaster; kangaroo rat, Dipodomys
ordii; pack rat, Neotoma micropus; cottontail, Sylvilagus auduboni .

Recorded From: Cochran, Gaines, Terry and Yoakum Counties.

Meringis parkeri Jordan, 1937.

Hosts: Grasshopper mouse, Onychomys leucogaster; kangaroo rats, Dipodo¬
mys ordii and D. spectabilis; pack rat, Neotoma micro pus.

Recorded From: Cochran, Dawson, Lamb and Terry Counties.

SlPHONAPTERA OF TEXAS

37

Family ischnopsyllidae
Myodopsyila collinsi Kohls, 1937.

Host: Cave bat, Myotis velifer.

Recorded From: Comal and Kinney Counties by Kohls and Jellison (1948).

Myodopsyila gentilis Jordan and Rothschild, 1941.

Host: Myotis occultus .

Recorded From: Medina County by G. F. Augustson (1939).

Sterna psyila texana (C. Fox, 1914).

Host: Mexican free-tailed bat, Tad arid a mexicana .

Recorded From: Bexar, Brown, Comal, Lavaca, Medina, Pecos and Uvalde
Counties.

Family rhopalopsyllidae
Toly gents gwyni (C. Fox, 1914).

Hosts: Cotton rat, Sigmodon hispid us; domestic rat, Rattus norvegiciis;
opossum, Didelphis Virginian a; domestic dog, Canis fa miliar is; spiny
pocket mouse, Liomys irroratus.

Recorded From: Brewster, Brazos, Galveston, Harris and Jefferson Counties.

Rhopalopsyllus cacicus (Jordan and Rothschild, 1908).

(Syn. R, coxi Eads, 1946).

Hosts: Raccoon, Procyon lot or; skunk, Mephitis mephitis; opossum, Didel¬
phis Virginian a; armadillo, Dasypus novemcinctus ; red fox, Vnlpes
fulva; red wolf, Canis niger.

Recorded From: Lavaca County.

Super-family PULICOIDEA
Family pulicidae
Cedio psylla sim pi ex ( Baker, 1895 ).

Hosts: Cottontail, Sylvilagus florid anus; jack rabbit, Lepus calif or nicus;
raccoon, Procyon lotor; fox, Vnlpes fulva and Urocyon cinereoar gen-
tens.

Recorded From: Brazos, Lavaca, Liberty, Menard and Navarro Counties.

Ctenocephalides felis (Bouche, 183 5 ).

Hosts: Domestic cat, Felis domestica; domestic dog, Canis familiar is; opos¬
sum, Didelphis virginiana; raccoon, Procyon lotor; coyote, Canis latrans;
red wolf, Canis niger; skunk, Mephitis mephitis; domestic rats, Rattus
rattus and R. norvegicus; cow, Bos taunts; fox squirrel, Sciurus niger .

Recorded From: Probably present in all counties in the State; specimens
have been examined from fifty counties scattered over Texas.

Echidna phaga gallinacea Westwood, 1875.

Hosts: Taken from a wide variety of avian and mammalian hosts.

38

The Texas Journal of Science

Recorded From: Probably present in all counties in the State. Specimens
examined from sixty-eight counties.

Hoplopsyllus af finis (Baker, 1904).

Hosts: Rabbits, Lepus calif or nicus y Sylvilagus aquaticus , S. auduhoni ; bob¬
cat, Lynx rufus; racoon, Procyon lotor ; grey fox, U roc yon cinereoar-
genteus; domestic rat, Kattus norvegicus; ground squirrel, Citelllus
spilosoma ; prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianns; kangaroo rat, Dipodomys
ordii ; wood rat, Neotom a micro pus; grasshopper mouse, Onychomys
leucogaster ; coyote, Can is latrans and porcupine, Erethizon epixanthum.

Recorded From: Brazos, Cameron, Crockett, Dawson, Dickens, Donley,
Duval, Gaines, Gray, Hockley, Hudspeth, Jeff Davis, Kleberg, Lamb,
Lavaca, Liberty, Lubbock, Lynn, Menard, Pecos, Terrell, Terry, Tom
Green, Uvalde, Williamson and Yoakum Counties.

Hoplopsyllus anomalus (Baker, 1904).

Host: Citellus variegatus.

Recorded From: Brewster and Presidio Counties.

fuxtapulex porcinns (Jordan and Rothschild, 1923).

Host: Javelina, T ay assn angulatum.

Recorded From: Probably occurs throughout the range of the javelina.
Specimens examined only from Aransas, Nueces, Terrell and Uvalde
Counties.

Pulex irritans Linnaeus, 175 8.

Hosts: Dog, Canis familiar is; coyote, Canis latrans ; red wolf, Canis niger;
domestic rat, Kattus norvegicus; opossum, Did el phis virginiana; rac¬
coon, Procyon lotor; striped skunk, Mephitis mephitis; grey fox, LJro-
cyan cinereoargenteus; bobcat, Lynx rufus; badger, Taxidea taxus;
prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianns; ring-tailed cat, Bassariscus as tutus;
kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii ; wood rat, Neotoma micropus; porcu¬
pine, Erethizon epixanthum.

Recorded From: Probably state-wide in distribution; specimens examined
from sixty-eight Texas Counties.

- Xenopsylla cheopis (Rothschild, 1903).

Hosts: Domestic rats, Kattus rattusy K. norvegicus; domestic mouse, Mus
mus cuius; opossum, Did el phis virginiana; rabbit, Lepus calif or nicus;
Sylvilagus sp.

Recorded From: Sixty-one counties in every section of the State.

Family tungidae

Khynchopsyllus pulex Haller, 18 80.

Host: Tadarida mexicana.

Recorded From: Medina and Uvalde Counties, by Augustson and Ryan
(1948).

Tunga penetrans (Linnaeus, 1758).

Ewing and Fox (1943) give a report of this species in Texas. Although it
does not appear to be permanently established, it is included due to the
ever present possibility of its introduction.

Respiration of Tomato Root Tissue Cultures

39

LITERATURE CITED

Auguston, G. F. — 1944 — a new mouse flea, Pleochaetoides bullish N. Gen., N. Sp., from
Texas. J. Parasit. 30 (6) : 366-368.

Auguston, G. F. and Ryan, L. C. — 1948 — The flea genus RhynchoPsyllus in the United
States. Bull. South. Cal. Acad, of Sci. 67 (3) : 111-112.

Ewing, H. E. and Fox, I. — 1943 — The fleas of North America. U. S. Dept, of Agr. Misc.
Pub. 500 : 143 pp.

Hubbard, C. A. — 1947 — Fleas of western North America. Iowa State College Press. Ames,
Iowa. 533 pp.

Kohls, G. M. and Jellison, W. L. — 1948 — Ectoparasites and other arthropods occurring in
Texas bat caves. Nat. Speleological Soc. 10.

Prince, F. M. — 1944 — Description of three new species of Thrassis Jordan and the females of
T. bacchi (Roths) and T. pansus (Jordan). Pan-Pac. Ent. 20: 13.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AGE AND RESPIRATORY
ACTIVITY OF TOMATO ROOT TISSUE CULTURES

Joe Adamcik
Winner, 2nd Prize
Collegiate Division, 1948

Plant Research Institute and Clayton Foundation for Research
University of Texas, Austin

In this study root tissue of a genetically uniform strain of tomato
was grown in White’s solution supplemented with thiamin and pyridoxine
and niacin. All eight possible combinations of the three vitamins were tried.
Two or three tissue cultures with the same vitamin supplement were com¬
bined in a Warburg manometer vessel and covered with a composite solu¬
tion made from the solutions from which they had been taken. In order to
absorb carbon dioxide liberated during respiration, 0.2 ml. of 1.2 5% sodium
hydroxide was used in the side arm of the vessel. The vessels were then
attached to the manometers and placed in a constant temperature bath
maintained at a temperature as near as possible to that of the culture
room. For any particular experiment the temperature of this bath was
constant to within ± 0.0 5° C. The vessels and manometers were shaken
at the rate of 180 oscillations per minute and were allowed to equilibrate
for twenty minutes after which the stopcocks were closed and readings of
the oxygen uptake taken at five minute intervals for a period of seventy
minutes.

The manometric constants were applied to obtain the number of cubic
millimeters of oxygen absorbed. The root tissue was then dried to constant
weight at 105° C and its dry weight determined. The number of cubic
millimeters of oxygen absorbed per centigram dry weight of tissue were
calculated. These results were graphed.

It was found in previous experiments that only those tissues which
grew appreciably afforded a large enough sample to be easily measured by
this method. Therefore, in the present series of respiration experiments,
only those vitamin supplements which supported appreciable growth were
considered. These were full vitamin supplement, thiamin + pyridoxine, and
niacin + thiamin.

Figure 1 shows a typical series (Series 2) of tissue with full vitamin
supplement in graphic form. It will be observed that respiration decreases
with both age and increasing dry weight. This general trend is observed
in other series and with other supplements as is shown by Table 1. This
table shows the respiration observed in one hour’s time, on the basis of dry

40

The Texas Journal of Science

weight. It can be seen that the respiration rate falls progressively with in¬
creasing age of the tissue.

As an aid in investigating this decline in respiration with age, Table
2 was prepared. This shows, for Series 2, the most rapid and least rapid
respiration rates in mmVcg dry wt/hr. The ratio of most rapid respiration,

least rapid respiration

calculated from these data, is also given. Similarly, the dry weight for the
week of most rapid respiration in centigrams and the dry weight for the
week of least rapid respiration is included. Another ratio which was obtained
by dividing the latter by the former is also shown. The respiration ratio is
indicative of the proportionate decrease in respiration, while the dry weight
ratio is indicative of the proportionate increase in dry weight.

figure 1

The respiration rates of tomato root tissue cultured on White’s medium
supplemented with thiamin, pyridoxine and niacin.

SERIES 1

VITAMIN mm3/ eg dry wt/hr

SUPPLEMENT

1

Week

2

3

4

L

Full vitamin (thiamin
+ pyridoxine + niacin) __

_ 43

36

23

17

4.

Thiamin + pyridoxine _

_ 37

35

21

3

8.

Niacin + thiamin _

SERIES 2

69

38

14

1

2

3

4

1.

Full vitamin (thiamin
-f pyridoxine T niacin) __

_ 6 3

22

20.5

4

4.

Thiamin + pyridoxine _

_ 83

32.5

34

10

8.

Niacin + thiamin _

SERIES 3

51

13

11

1

2

3

4

1.

Full vitamin (thiamin
+ pyridoxine + niacin) __

_ .... 61

64

47

27

4.

Thiamin + pyridoxine _

_ 112

122

35

34

8.

Niacin + thiamin _

_ 90

72

The relationship of the most rapid and least
rapid respiration rates to dry weight of tomato
root tissue cultured on White's medium. Series

Respiration of Tomato Root Tissue Cultures

41

isf 3

u' §*

•5 A

* 3

K. Oh

r? n

fed o
o

H3

’a.

a • rs
.5 « 3

i * 2
* S S
. ©
£ fed c
Q o C

"a

”Sh

■o a «n
a .9 e

^ 2 S

s S s

§ -S
.2 ^
fed
u

& 3
3 I
* £

g -c

O \
fed
o

•s CO

^ £

3 CO

fa cl

£ .5
.2 x

h|

_ Cu

(8) Niacin +

thiamin 51 11 4.64 0.40 0.78 1.95

42

The Texas Journal of Science

table 3

most rapid respiration

Summary table showing the ratio of -

least rapid respiration

dry weight Wk of least rapid respiration

and the ratio - — - - : —

dry weight Wk of most rapid respiration

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

Vitamin supplement

Resp.

Dry wt.

Resp.

Dry wt.

Resp.

Dry wt.

Ratio

Ratio

Ratio

Ratio

Ratio

Ratio

1.

Full vitamin

2.53

3.92

15.75

2.56

2.37

1.23

4.

Thiamin + pyridoxine

12.34

4.50

8.30

5.85

3.59

3.09

8.

Niacin + thiamin

4.93

3.65

4.64

1.95

1.25

8.60

It is agreed that these figures are only approximations because no at¬
tempt was made to insure that only the young terminal portions were
used as original explants. Portions of the tissues may actually have been
considerably older when used as these explants. Elimination of this uncer¬
tainty will be discussed later.

Table 3 is a summary table containing only the two ratios mentioned
above. It will be noticed that in seven out of the nine cases, the respiration
decrease is larger than the dry weight increase. The total respiration of any
particular culture decreased with increasing age and further, the respira¬
tion rate calculated on the basis of dry weight decreased at a faster rate than
the dry weight increased. This behavior could result from: (1) all of the
tissue not respiring as rapidly or (2) the total amount of actual respiring
tissue being smaller or (3) a combination of these two.

A number of experiments have been suggested by this study. The
above mentioned error due to the possibility that old tissue was used as
the original explant could be eliminated by selection of only the terminal
portions of the roots for the explants. If this is done, it will be certain that
the actual age of the culture will be near the length of time it has been
grown in the flask.

In addition, a useful study would be separate respiration measurements
of the terminal and basal portions of the cultures. This would indicate
whether the tips are respiring at the characteristic high rate of young
tissue and whether or not the increase in non-respiring matter (dry weight)
in the basal portions is sufficient to account for the whole of the decrease
in respiration for the entire culture; in order words, whether the respira¬
tion decrease is centered almost wholly in the older parts of the culture,

Poisonous Plant Problems

43

or whether the age of the parent tissue, perhaps by passing on poisonous
by-products of growth, affects the younger tissue sufficiently to be a signifi¬
cant factor in the decline in respiration.

Additional experiments were performed on a related strain of tomato
in which the basal centimeters, the terminal centimeters, and the inter¬
vening portions were separated and their respiratory rates determined. On
the basis of a limited number of these experiments made on tissue with
full vitamin supplement it was found that the terminal centimeter por¬
tions respire about twice as rapidly as either the basal centimeter portions
or the intervening portions.

summary

Tomato root tissue was grown in White’s solution containing various
vitamin supplement combinations.

Respiratory measurements of these cultures were made by Warburg’s
direct method and the readings calculated on the basis of dry weight.

The respiration on the basis of dry weight decreased with age. The
respiration on the basis of dry weight decreased more rapidly with age than
the dry weight increased.

Further experiments with the purpose of investigating more fully this
decline in respiration with age are suggested.

POISONOUS PLANT PROBELMS
Omer E. Sperry

Department of Range and Forestry
The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas

Of the more than sixty species of plants on the range lands of Texas,
some twenty or thirty are of major importance in specific areas and locali¬
ties during certain seasons. Our poisonous plants are, in the main, native
plants which have increased in area and have become troublesome with
overgrazing.

Bitterweed leads the list of killers since many head of sheep are lost
each year from this plant. Bitterweed is an annual, frequents disturbed
areas and grows rapidly when moisture is available. It is normally a winter
annual but often persists most or all of the year. The greatest losses occur
during the winter and spring following rain, when more palatable green
forage is not available. Although 1948 was not considered a severe bitter¬
weed year due to the dry weather throughout the infested area some
ranchmen lost up to 50 percent of their animals by this weed. In every
case investigated losses were due to lack of green feed or in some cases
lack of any feed.

Most sheepmen realize that the only approach to the control of bitter¬
weed poisoning is to first control the bitterweed by getting a good cover
of grass. Rotational and deferred grazing, reduction of numbers, and in
some instances smaller pastures and additional waterings are the chief man¬
agement measures that must be followed. Chemical eradication, by 2, 4-D

44

The Texas Journal of Science

and perhaps other chemicals, is being widely used on bitterweed with vary¬
ing degrees of success. If the eradication is a device to continue heavy
stocking, the ranchman is still the loser. If the eradication is used to re¬
move competition to give the grass a better chance, the use is of consid¬
erable merit. One school of ranchmen attempts to meet the situation of lack
of range feed by supplementing hay and high protein feed. In a few cases
a "medicated feed” has been used as a supplement. While feed probably
lessens the death rate, it is by no means a cure to the problem. Complete
deferment in severe bitterweed infested areas over periods of from three
to five years has enabled grass to completely crowd this pest from a number
of range areas and although a costly process, appears to be the only certain
method to follow.

There are two species of senecio which have caused the death of numer¬
ous cattle in the Big Bend area this past year. Drought and continued
heavy stocking have contributed to the losses. Here again the senecio seems
to move into the background when sufficient range forage is available. As
with bitterweed, 2, 4-D promises to be an important help in a manage¬
ment program.

Sachuiste furnishes much forage during the winter months but is very
poisonous when flower buds and blooms arc eaten. Some ranchmen eradicate
the plant so as to have yearlong range; others remove stock during the
flowering period.

Oak furnishes some forage but again oak bud poisoning is a serious
problem. Stock cannot be run in oak areas during the early leafing period
without considerable risk of loss.

There are three or four species of loco that present a serious problem,
especially in the Big Bend Area. Mechanical or chemical eradication seems
to be essential as an adjunct to more grass in the control of losses from
"locoism.”

High death losses are recorded on ranches which have alkali flats in¬
fested with rayless goldenrod. Some ranchmen are attempting eradication
by "chopping” the plant out, while others fence off the danger areas. Chemi¬
cal eradication seems to offer some relief on this species.

Jimmy fern, peavine, broomweed, yellowweed, milkweed, baileya,
drymaria, coyotillo and a few others are also creating poisonous plant prob¬
lems on our ranches.

Summer Foods and Movement of Mule Deer

45

EARLY SUMMER FOODS AND MOVEMENTS OF THE MULE DEER
(ODOCOILEUS HEMIONUS) IN THE SIERRA VIEJA RANGE
OF SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS

Alfred W. Anderson
Game, Fish and Oyster Commission
Rockport, Texas

INTRODUCTION

Food habits and local movements of the mule deer (Odocoileus hemionm
crooki) were studied in the Sierra Vieja Mountains 11 miles west of Valen-
time, Presidio county, Texas, from June 4 to July 9, 1948.

Little is known of the foods taken by the mule deer in this region.
Mearns (1907) and Bailey (1905) both reported some of the foods taken
by the mule deer in Arizona and Texas. The Interstate Deer Herd Committee
(1947) reported browse and grass percentages used by the mule deer of
California.

The field work was done in a University of Texas field party under
the direction of Dr. W. F. Blair. I am indebted to other members of the
field party for observations that add to the knowledge of the local move¬
ments of the deer. All antlers and skeletons found on the C. E. Miller
ranch were brought together and catalogued for the Texas Natural History
Collection, Zoology Department, University of Texas. The locations at
which these antlers and skeletons were found supplement my information
about the local range of the deer.

This report concerns the food habits of the mule deer, the local move¬
ments and daily rhythm of activity, social behavior and water relations.
Because so little is known about the foods of the mule deer in southwestern
Texas the food habits were concentrated on in the field work.

FOODS

The foods were determined by observation of feeding deer with the aid
of 8 x 30 field glasses and by collection and identification of the foods being
taken. Feeding minutes is an expression of time while feeding on one species
of plant. One feeding minute denotes one deer feeding one minute on one
species of plant. The tabulation of feeding minutes in the field was difficult
with large numbers of deer, so, where herds of twelve or more deer were
sighted and observed, only the feeding minutes of twelve deer were re¬
corded. The error in this method is smaller than if more than twelve deer
were observed while feeding. The foods listed are believed to be accurate
for the time and species used. It is evident that the foods here reported were
spring and early summer foods, as this study was limited to the month of
June and the first eight days of July. Work at other seasons may indicate
different food habits at other seasons.

The mule deer took 13 foods in 1287 observed feeding minutes.
Observation was made on 26 separate days. Two or more observations
were made on four days. The foods taken with feeding minutes and per¬
centages of the total time each was eaten are shown in Table I.

46

The Texas Journal of Science

table i

Foods taken by the mule deer ( Odocoileus bemionus crooki) in the Sierra
Vieja Region of Southwestern Texas from June 4 to July 8, 1948. Percent¬
ages of total foods taken with percentages of grazing and browsing.

Foods Taken

Feeding

minutes

Percentage
of total

Agave lechuguilla _

_ 123

9.5

Artemisia mexicana _

_ 2

0.2

Ephedra tr if lire a

Ephedra antisyphilitic a ____

_ 90

7.0

Juglans rupestris _

_ 44

3.4

J uni perils monos perm a _

_ 18

1.4

87.0%

browse

Lonicera arizonica _

_ 13

1.0

Phoradendron coryae

Phoradend ron bolleanum

_ 101

7.8

Quercus emoryi _

_ 294

23.0

Quercus grisea _

_ 101

7.8

Rhus choriopbylla

Rhus trilobata _

_ 145

11.3

Ungnadia speciosa _

_ 28

2.2

Yucca carnerosana _

_ 160

12.4

Bouteloua spp. _

_ 168

13.0

13.0%

graze

Totals _

_ 1287

100.06

100.00

Emory’s oak ( Quercus emoryi) constituted 23.0% of the total foods
taken and was the food used in greatest amounts. Rhus choriopbylla and
Rhus trilobata , two species of sumac which are closely associated with
Emory’s oak, comprised 11.3% of the total foods taken by the deer. Yucca
(Yucca carnerosana ) represented 12.4% of the total foods used. Lechuguilla
(Agave lechuguilla) comprised 9.5% of the foods taken by the mule deer.
Lechuguilla and yucca are both important foods in the browsing group.
These plants were both found on the mesas, but the yucca alone was
found on the flats. These two foods are probably more important than is
indicated by my data, because much night, early morning and late evening
feeding was done on the flats and mesas. The lechuguilla and some of the
yucca showed evidence of browsing by deer. If accurate observation were
possible during the late evening hours and moonlight night hours the per¬
centages of lechuguilla and yucca might be raised.

Summer Foods and Movements of Mule Deer

47

Bailey (1905) reported "They eat the green stalks of the big century
plants (Agave wislizeni and applanata) and pry open the cabbage-like caudex
of the sotol (Dasylirion texanum ) for its starchy and juicy center.” In my
own investigation I found no indication that sotol centers had been taken
but there was evidence that the mule deer had taken the centers of lcchu-
guilla and yaucca.

Gray oak (Quercus grisea ) and mistletoe (Pboradendron coryae and
Pboradendron bolleanum) each represented 7.8% of the foods taken.

Browse foods made up 87% of the diet of the mule deer while graze
foods constituted only 13% of the total foods taken. Low annual rainfall
is characteristic of the region and prevents abundant growth of most of
the grasses; thus the deer are probably forced to take browse foods. The
average rainfall on the C. E. Miller ranch from 1937 to 1944 was 14.69
inches. The average rainfall in the first five months during the years 1937
to 1944 was 2.64 inches. The rainfall for the first five months of 1947
totaled 3.18 inches. The rainfall for the first five months in 1948 in the
area investigated totaled only 0.54 inches. The month of March was not
reported but I am reasonably certain that no rain fell in that month. The
rainfall in the first five months was, therefore, considerably deficient.
Heavy rains on June 1 and June 2 totaled more than 1.75 inches, which
noticeably increased the growth of grass.

The browse foods were important in all of the associations investi¬
gated. A fairly constant low percentage of grazing was shown in all of
the associations where feeding was observed (Table II). The highest graz¬
ing percentage, 15.6%, was in the catclaw-grama association. The grazing
percentage in the catclaw-tobosa was 12.3%. An average percentage for
the minor miscellaneous associations was 12.0%.

TABLE II

Feeding minutes and grazing percentages of mule deer (Odocoileus bemionus
crooki) in several econogical associations of the Sierra Vieja Region,
from June 4 to July 8, 1948

Recorded Recorded Grazing

Association observations minutes percentages

Catclaw-grama _ 12 541 15.6

Lechuguilla-beargrass _ 6 139 12.7

Catclaw-tobosa _ 13 526 12.3

Misc. associations _ 4 81 12.0

Totals _ 3 5 1287

Good evidence of the preference of the mule deer for browse at this
time and place was obtained when two different herds of deer were ob¬
served feeding over a large alluvial fan at the mouth of Knox canyon, 1.1
miles south of the Miller ranch house. The percentage of grazing was only
9.4 even though there was a good stand of grama grass (Bouteloua spp.)

48

The Texas Journal of Science

During this period Mexican walnut (Juglans rupestris) and yucca consti¬
tuted the main portion of the diet. One other time gave good evidence for
the low percentage of grazing. Eleven deer were observed as they moved
through a catclaw-tobosa association. Three species of plants were taken
as food. The food taken in greatest amount was jointfir (Ephedra tr if urea
and Ephedra antisyphilitic a ) , next was yucca, followed by grama grass. The
grazing percentage of 16.5 was the highest observed in the entire study.

A much higher graze percentage was shown for the mule deer in
California by the Interstate Deer Herd Committee (1947). In a five-month
period of study they found a decrease in browsing from 61.3% in Novem¬
ber to 3 3.6% in March.

ACTIVITY

The daily rhythm or activity is definite and is probably controlled
mainly by temperature. As the warm hours of the morning approach the
deer move from the mesas and the flats toward the canyons. This movement
is slow and deliberate and provides additional time for feeding. As the
temperature rises the deer move into the shade of the larger trees which
give protection from the sun. The gray oak, Emory oak and cedar (Juniperus
monos pertna) were the trees most often selected by the mule deer, probably
because the other large bushes offer less shade than these trees. The mule
deer rest through the day in the shade and leave only when the tempera¬
ture drops enough to permit comfortable feeding. Deer were seldom
seen active in the middle of the day. Mearns (1907) said regarding the
mule deer, "It usually feeds in the morning and evening, spending the
hottest part of the day in the shade of a tree or rock.” In my work, rest¬
ing deer were observed between 9:30 a.m. and 4:30 p.m. As the deer left
these resting points in the evening they spread over the mesas and flats for
evening and night feeding. Deer were seen feeding during the moonlight
nights of June up to 10:00 p.m. when observations were discontinued.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

The mule deer were definitely gregarious. They were seen in herds of
up to 23 individuals. Groups of as few as two, three, and four deer some¬
times fed together. If small groups were frightened they soon joined other
deer to form a larger herd.

While feeding, the deer spread in a semi-fan-shaped formation. The
young deer bring up the rear of the herd and appear to be more nervous
while feeding than the older animals. When feeding on a large slope the
deer move along several paths. The deer in a given trail usually feed on the
foods taken by the leading deer.

The deer have a fright reaction that is characteristic. If frightened
they join together as a tight group and run or lope in a single line. This
was observed on the flats, mesas and in the canyons.

WATER

Surface or free water apparently is not required by the mule deer.
Even with the shortage of green foods and the combination of high tem¬
peratures and low humidity the deer use little or no free water. In the total

Summer Foods and Movements of Mule Deer

49

time of investigation no deer were seen to take water. We found many
places in the canyons and on the mesas where standing water holes had
deer tracks, but these tracks only passed the holes. No tracks of standing
deer were found. According to Mearns (1907) "It is also apt to go to water
in the evening or early morning, and, hunters say, on moonlight nights.”
In my own investigation during nine observations a total of 43 deer were
seen to pass points with standing or surface water. At no time did the deer
pause or stop to take water. Water for the diet is probably obtained in the
foods such as yucca, lechuguilla and sumac. The hearts of both lechuguilla
and yucca were used by the deer. Both of these have a high water content.

MORTALITY

Four deer skeletons were found. These skeletons with several shed
antlers supplement my information about the possible areas of movement
of the mule deer. The skeletons also provide possible evidence for the
cause of death of some of the deer.

One buck skeleton was found on a rock slide, and from the number
of fractured bones it may be safely assumed the deer was injured in a rock
slide and died at the point of fall. There was fracture of the right femur,
left tibia and left fibula. The vertebrae of the neck were not damaged, in¬
dicating no injury of the vertebrae by predators such as the mountain lion
(Felis con color ) . The skeleton was not scattered. This was the skeleton of
an eight point buck and the diameter of the antler one inch above the
corona was 3 3 millimeters.

During one period of observation a buck was seen to fall on a rock
slide v/ith apparent damage to the right fore-foot. As the deer left the
scene of the fall there was no use of this foot. This deer was trailed and
seen again in about one hour, but had not. at that time, regained the use
of the foot.

One skeleton of a doe was found in a clump of cedars in Z. H. Canyon.
This skeleton was found in a well sheltered position, indicating that the
deer possibly took shelter for protection during disease or injury. None of
the bones was fractured, so it is possible that the deer died from disease
or parasites.

One buck skeleton was found in the stream-bed association of Z. H.
Canyon. The bones of this skeleton were scattered over an area of 150
square feet. The bones that were located were in bad condition, possibly in¬
dicating that they had been scattered by scavengers. The antlers of this
deer had six points and had a diameter one inch above the corona of 30
millimeters.

One skeleton of a buck was found in sumac close to the top of a
mesa. There were no points above the primary branches and, as one antler
was broken, it was not possible to determine the number of points. The
diameter of the antler one inch above the corona measured 3 6 millimeters.
This skeleton was well hidden from sight and well protected from the sun
and wind. The bones had no fractures and the vertebrae of the neck were
in good condition. It seems possible that this deer took shelter during a
period of disease and remained to die.

50

The Texas Journal of Science

These skeletons indicate two possible causes of death. Actual investi¬
gation of diseased deer would give better indication of death rate due to
disease and parasites, while observation of deer over a long period of time
would probably give an indication of the death rate due to accidents.

SUMMARY

A survey of the foods used by the mule deer (Odocoileus bemionus
crooki) was made in the Sierra Vieja region of southwestern Teaxs from
June 4 to July 9, 1948. A total of 12 87 feeding minutes was recorded,
showing that 13 species of plants were being used by the mule deer.
Emory’s oak (Quercus emoryi) constituted 23% of the total foods and
therefore was the most important food item in the diet of the mule deer
in this area at the time of the study.

Browse foods constituted 87% of the total foods taken while graze
foods made up only 13% of the diet of the mule deer.

Daily activity is probably controlled by temperature. A period of
little or no activity is shown during the hot hours of the day.

Mule deer are gregarious during periods of feeding and moving. When
frightened the deer group together and move from the area of danger.

Evidently, surface or free water is not needed by the Mexican mule
deer. No deer were seen taking free water.

Disease and accidents both probably account for some natural deaths
of the mule deer in the field.

literature cited

Bailey, Vernon — 1905 — Biological survey of Texas. North Amer. Fauna 25: 1-222, 16 pis, 24
text figs.

Interstate Deer Herd Committee — 1947 — Second progress report on cooperative study of the
interstate deer herd and its range. Cal. Fish and Game 33: 287-314, 11 text figs.

Mearns, Edgar, Alexander — 1907 — Mammals of the Mexican boundary of the United States.
Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 56: i-xv. 1-530, 13 pis., 126 text figs.

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE FLORAL COMPOSITION OF A
SPHAGNUM BOG IN ROBERTSON COUNTY*

Chester M. Rowell, Jr.

Department of Biology
The A & M College of Texas

There is a small area located approximately fifteen miles east of New
Baden in Robertson County that is quite different from the surrounding
countrv. It is an immature peat or Sphagnum bog, locally called "'Black
Boggy.” Situated between two sandy hills, it is unique from most other
valleys in the area by having a distinct flora and remaining moist even
when the season is very dry.

There are several more bogs in the state, but this one is one of the
youngest. Others are found in Anderson, Gonzales, and Lee Counties, as
well as in Robertson County.

* The writer wishes to express his appreciation to The Texas Academy of Science for
the research grant awarded him while working on this project.

Composition of a Sphagnum Bog

n

To my knowledge all of the true peat bogs of Texas are found in the
Carrizo sands. These sands constitute one of the lower units of the Claiborne
group in the middle Eocene §3^stem. They form a diagonal strip across the
state from the northeast to the southwest.

The bog proper is over three hundred yards long and has a maximum
width of approximately three hundred feet. It is irregular in outline, but
forms a long e?C”-§haped curve and follows an east-west direction. Through
the middle and with its origin immediately above the bog is a small stream.
It apparently is fed only with the water that seeps out from the surround¬
ing hills. There may be a small rise at the end of the valley that helps the
area to retain some of its moisture.

At this time, there have been no samples taken to determine the strati¬
fication and depth of the bog. However, by probing in the more moist
areas, a hard layer has been found at a depth of from two to three feet.
This is probably an impervious clay stratum as is found in the Patschke
Bog in Lee County. The soils in the whole area are very high in sand con¬
tent, but in the bog proper there is a great deal of black organic material
mixed in with the sand. There has not yet been enough accumulation of
organic material to form any real peat. Present indications are that the
major reasons for the floristic differences exhibited in the bog are the water
content of the soil and the accumulated organic materials.

The flora of the bog area fits into three natural zones. The first con¬
sists of the typical forest of the oak-hickory association. These woods ex¬
tend to the edge of the bog and penetrate it in places. The second zone con¬
sists for the most part of low shrubs, grasses, and several other herbaceous
forms. The third zone is a tall shrub group in the center of the bog follow¬
ing the stream as it winds through. This zone is not typical of the other
bogs observed and has questionable influence on the rest of the bog flora.
There is a general drop from the woods edge to the stream totaling approxi¬
mately seven feet. The slope is more gradual towards the woods, becoming
rather abrupt at the stream’s edge.

Zone one is typical of the oak-hickory association of the deciduous
forest formation of central east Texas. The following are most abundant
and may be considered the dominants:

Post Oak— Quercus stellata Wang.

Black Jack— Quercus mar yl an die a Muench.

Sand Jack —Quercus c in era L.

Buckley’s Hickory — Carya buckle yi Durand

Yaupon — I Ilex vomitoria Ait.

The following trees vary in occurrence, but are generally present:

Deciduous Holly- — Ilex decidua Walt.

American Holly — -Ilex opaca Ait.

Flowering Dogwood — -Corims florida L.

Crataegus spp.

Other trees and shrubs of common occurence are:

Wax Myrtle-— Myrica cerifera L.

Blapk Gum — -Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

Birch— Betula-nigra L.

The understory of this zone is composed of the shrubby forms of the plants

52

The Texas Journal of Science

listed above as well as numerous herbaceous plants that vary greatly with
the seasons.

The second, moving towards the center of the bog, could well be di¬
vided into very moist and semi-moist units. From the over all viewpoint, it
is an area of the low shrubs, wax myrtle and yaupon, and several grasses
including Andropogon ternarius Michx. (the most abundant), Erianthus
saccharoides Michx., Paspalum plicatulum Michx. and Paincum spp. The
various plants form almost pure stands at intervals.

Scattered throughout zone two are communities of the insectivorous
pitcher plant Sarracenia slcdgei MacFarlane. Almost without exception, these
plant communities are associated with the "boggy” areas. The surface of
these areas feels like gelatin. When it is walked upon, the ground shakes for
several feet around. These places vary in diameter from five to fifteen
feet. They are essentially oval in outline and seem to be ponds or sloughs
that have become filled with fine organic material from the plants nearby.
The roots of the surface plants have formed a very dense network. The net
result is the flexible ' wavy” surface that is so peculiar.

Other than the pitcher plant, there is a large number of other distinct
plants found only in association with these areas. There are two orchids,
rose pogonia Pogonia ophioglossoides (1.) Ker Gawl that is abundant in late
April and swamp tresses Spiranthes cerna (L.) L. C. Rich. Correll in
mid summer. In early spring and through most of the summer the pipeworts
Eriocatdon spp. are abundant. These plants are called the composites of the
monocots as they have their flowers in compact heads that resemble those
of members of the compositae. There are two forms of another insectivorous
plant, the bladderwort, U tricularia spp. that are abundant in the spring.
The sundew Drosera annua Reed is also found in abundance in the sandy,
moist regions of the whole area. Khexia mariana L. the meadow beauty is
very abundant in mid-spring and gives the area a purple hue by its numer¬
ous bright flowers. Two diminutive plants, bog moss M ayaca aubleti Michx.
and Sphagnum or peat most Sphagnum subsecundum Nees and S. imbricatum
Hornsh., form a dense matte on the surface wherever there is enough light
for their growth. (The mosses determined by A. LeRoy Andrews).

This middle zone exhibits the most outstanding seasonal aspect changes
of the three. The winter aspect, which lasts from November to late Febru¬
ary, is characterized by the dead grasses and the evergreen wax myrtle. In
early spring, the pitcher plants, velvety panic grass Panic urn scoparium Lam.,
two ferns Osmunda regalis L. the royal fern and Osmunda cinnamonea L*
the cinnamon fern give the bog a green mantle. Soon after, the grasses ap¬
pear to take over and continue to dominate for most of the summer in a
green condition. During that period, however, Helianthus angustifolia L.
the narrow-leafed sunflower gets to be very abundant. Following are two
members of the parsley family Ptliminium cos tat urn (Ell.) Raf. and Cicuta
mexicana C. and R. With the gradual disappearance of the parsleys and the
death of most of the other herbaceous forms, the bog assumes its winter
aspect.

There is an encroachment of both the other two zones into zone two
in several places. The resulting small shrub and tree communities have in¬
teresting mixtures of the floras.

Composition of a Sphagnum Bog

53

Zone three Is composed for the most part of wax myrtle and yaupon,
although many smaller plants form an integral part of the whole commun¬
ity. These plants weave so thick a network that passage is almost impos¬
sible. The soil here is dryer' than that in zone two, due in part to at least a
slight elevation along the stream's edge. The most frequently observed plants
in zone three, other than the dominants, were as follows:

Dewberry— Kubus velox Bailey
Stretchberries -—Smilax laurifolia L.

Smilax glauca Walt.

Smilax rotundi folia L.

Rattan v me— Berc hernia scandens (Hill) Trek
Peppervine— — arbor ea (L.) Des Moulins

Approximately the same zonation is exhibited on both sides of the
stream, although less distinctly and in a shorter space on the south side
where the slope is more abrupt.

Field analyses with colorimetric methods give the following approxi¬
mate pH readings. Zone one, the woods, pH6; zone two, the soil, pHS,
the standing water pH4; and zone three, the soil, pH6, the water in the
stream, pH 5 .

The bog under Consideration is located approximately fifteen miles east
of New Baden in Robertson County. It is in the Carrizo sands of the Clai¬
borne group, geologically. The bog has assumed a general "C” shape and
follows a small stream in an east-west direction. A good supply of seepage
water and a sort of natural reservoir with the resultant accumulation of
organic materials seem to be the major reasons for the formation of the bog.

The vegetation forms three distinct natural zones. The first is the
forest of the oak-hickory association, with black jack, post oak, sand
jack, Buckley’s hickory and yaupon being the dominants. The second zone
contains the real "boggy” areas and is dominated by wax myrtle, Andro-
pogon ternarim, Sarracenia sledgei, and several grasses. This area exhibits
outstanding seasonal aspect changes and has many plants that cannot be
found again in most parts of the state. The third zone is along the stream
that runs through the middle of the bog. Its vegetational constituents are
yaupon, wax myrtle, three species of stretchberry, Kubus velox , and several
other vines and understory plants.

This report is preliminary and further study is in progress.

S4 The Texas Journal of Science

THE MACARTNEY ROSE

(Rosa hr act eat a — Windland)

7. T. Taylor

County Superintendent of Public Instruction
Jackson County
Edna — Texas

COMMON NAME

Wild Rose, Rose, Macartney’s Rose, Rosa Blanda, Hedge Rose.

DESCRIPTION

Evergreen shrub with erect to drooping stems that form a climbing or
trailing woody vine-tomentose, with stout hooks and mostly paired prickles.
The leaflets five to nine, oval to obovate, crenately serrulate, bright green
above and somewhat shining almost glabrous underneath, one-half to two
inches long; stipules slightly obovate and pectinate. The flowers are solitary,
short-stemmed, white, one and one-half to two inches across with large,
lacineated, pubescent bacts at base; sepals reflexed after flowering, densely
tomentose; receptacle tomentose; fruit globose, one-half to one inch across,
orange-red, woolly.

Blooming period from April to June and sporadically until frost. When
left undisturbed many of the plants develop into thick motted mounds, ten
to fifteen feet high and many yards thick. These may extend from a half-
mile to a mile in length, forming impenetrable thickets along fence rows,
drainage ditches, canals, creeks and river bottoms, choking out all other
growth and apparently impoverishing the soil wherever it is found.

HISTORY AND RANGE

The Macartney Rose originated in China and was first introduced into
the United States, in 1793, by a sailor named Macartney, for whom it is
named. It has since become naturalized from Virginia through Florida and
the other Gulf states to Texas. Originally, because of its extremely dense
growth, this rose was planted in various parts of the South for wind breaks,
hedges, and to stop erosion; and some of these early plantings, made a century
ago, are still growing luxuriantly.

There is no record of its first introduction into Texas. However, so
well were our climate and soils suited to it, it was not long until the familiar
garden and hedgerow plant had spread widely and become a pest of the
worst type. In Jackson County today several thousand acres are covered
with it, while in Texas as a whole, it has rendered probably 200,000 acres
useless.

METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION

We have already noted the transplantation of this rose to various parts
of the South by man. However, it is by natural means that it has been
spread so widely. In dry years cattle feed on the rose hips, generally in the
late summer or early fall, after the grass is gone and the rose bushes have
made hundreds and hundreds of seed pods. The seeds, which are resistant

The Macartney Rose

55

to the digestive juices, are then spread in the manure and, as the cattle
move on to uninfested land, they leave these seeds nicely fertilized, ready
to germinate and grow the following spring. In an uncompleted experi¬
ment, the A and M College of Texas has arrived at the conclusion that for
every one hundred rose seeds eaten, a reasonable expectation is that twenty-
eight new rose plants will be started. With each hip containing over fifty
seeds, it is easy to conclude that the plant has a good chance of covering
a lot of territory.

In wet weather, during the late fall, cattle spread this plant by another
means. Walking through areas infested with the rose, they pick up parts
of the rose stems and roots between their hooves, carrying them to other
parts of the pasture, thus resetting them in areas where they will grow
and thrive.

Claims have been made that foxes, raccoons and opossums eat the
fruit and spread the seeds, but there is little or no evidence to support this
contention, and it is not considered likely. However, pocket gophers feed
on the roots and probably eat some of the fruit. These animals also store
food for the winter, part of which consists of bits of Macartney rose roots
two to fotir inches long. Those they do not eat during the winter will sprout
the next spring, starting new haycock-like clumps.

However, birds compose the greatest medium of natural distribution.
Cardinals, mocking birds, cedar wax wings and robins all are very fond
of the rose hips, feeding heavily on them in the late fall and early winter
and the seeds are scattered far and wide in this manner.

Another lesser cause of distribution, but one serving to spread the
plants extremely widely may be due to shipping cattle from rose infested
areas to those where this pest has not yet obtained a foot hold. Stock cars
and trucks would thus be distributing agents, as would stockyards dis¬
posing of manure.

WILDLIFE PROTECTION

It is a dark cloud that has no silver lining and it would be bad indeed
if we could say nothing good of the Macartney Rose. Rose clumps give
cover and protection to wild life along the gulf coast of Texas. They are
a favorite abode for pocket gophers to which the rose furnishes food,
shelter and protection. These clumps also give protection to armadilloes,
skunks, opossums, foxes, wolves, snakes and field rats and furnish cover
and nesting places for birds. Quail, particularly, want nothing better than
a rose infested pasture for cover and protection.

CONTROL

The control of this rose is becoming a serious question. It apparently
has no enemies. No diseases or insects attack it, and Nature gives no aid to
man in this problem. As a result, in some areas of the state (as we have
already mentioned) , these plants are so numerous that considerable areas
lie idle and, in the last ten years have spread over grazing land so rapidly
that range specialists have started serious studies of this pest to determine
how best to control it.

The usual method of grubbing out the clumps costs from $20.00 to

56

The Texas Journal of Science

$6 5.00 per acre and is not satisfactory. It does not destroy the rose in an
area, but merely holds it in check.

Treatments with 2, 4-D at the rate of one and one-half pounds per
hundred gallons per acre give some results but do not eradicate the plant.
In an experiment with this chemical, Cyrus L. Cook, Assistant County
Agent of Victoria, obtained the following results:

"A close examination of wild rose test plots where double strength
2, 4-D was used showed almost one hundred percent kill. In other places
the same concentration got only about a twenty-five percent kill. A dilute
solution got about seventy-six percent kill in some places. In others the
same dilute solution got very little if any results. So at present it is hard
to say just what results we can expect from the 2, 4-D chemical in the
eradication of wild roses/’

The A and M study on the use of rose hips as food by cattle showed
that about eighty-five percent of the seeds are passed by an animal within
three days after they are eaten. If the ranchmen will isolate for three days
cattle which have had access to the Macartney rose he will go a long way
towards cutting down the spread of the plant, as shipment of such cattle
has been responsible for the destruction of much previously uninfested
grazing land.

Whenever possible, the best means of control is to plant rice for two
consecutive years on the infested land. The water used in irrigating and
cultivating the rice will eradicate the Macartney rose and has, wherever
rice is grown on the gulf coast, been responsible for holding this pest in
check.

This rose is a pest of the worst kind, and must be dealt with in the
near future or thousands of acres of land will have to be turned back to
Nature as unfit for human use.

A DEMONSTRATION OF STAINED ROOT HAIRS
ON GRASS SEEDLINGS

Carol McCall

Biology Department, Baylor University
Waco, Texas

The laboraory needs of General Botany classes in Baylor University
served as the stimulus for the work described in the ensuing report. Pre¬
scribed studies of root systems, with particular attention being given to
root hair formation zones and microscopic structural details, proved diffi¬
cult because of variations in germination time of seeds and in the qualita¬
tive structures of seedlings which did germinate. By modification of the
usual technique methods, a set of permanent slides was made which proved
satisfactory for the class needs.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Seeds of Agrosth alba , commonly known as "redtopped grass”, are
germinated on moistened filter paper in petri dishes. This requires a period
of from three to five days in the dark. The dark-room germination results

Stained Root Hairs on Grass Seedlings

57

in a more rapid elongation of cells in the roots, and also insures less evapo¬
ration of moisture from the dishes. The seeds are vernalized, or refrigerated,
until the time for germination, in order that their development may be
speeded up.

The seedlings are killed and fixed in formalin-acetic-acid (Krajian,
1940) by simply filling the lower half of a petri dish with the solution and
agitating the dish frequently for about a thirty-minute period. The fixing
reagent is drained off of the seedlings, and four or five changes of dis¬
tilled water are used in washing out the fixative. The seedlings are then
covered with Delafield’s hematoxylin solution for at least thirty minutes.
Microscopic examination of the seedlings during the staining process shows
the roots to be heavily over-stained; this is compensated for by the de¬
staging activity of the glycerin in the following steps of the procedure.
The stained seedlings are washed four or five times with tap water, and
are now ready for mounting.

Selection of the seedlings to be used is made with the petri dish under
a dissecting microscope, and laboratory forceps are used to grasp the coleop-
tile of each seedling for the transfer from the dish to a slide. Each seedling
is placed on a slide in the proper position for a permanent mount, and ten
per cent glycerin added as the mounting medium. The slide tray is placed
in a dust-free chamber for approximately forty-eight hours, or until the
glycerin concentrates, then a drop of pure glycerin is added to each seed¬
ling, and a small cover slip, No. 1A-7/8 is dropped into position on the
glycerin. An excess glycerin is removed from around the edge of the cover
slip with blotter paper. A drop of clarite is placed on the small cover slip,
and a larger slip, No. 2-18 mm., is dropped into position, taking care to
eliminate air bubbles. This method of double mounting is necessary for two
reasons: clarite and glycerin are immiscible, causing an unsightly circling
effect where the two materials meet, and glycerin does not seal, making the
larger cover slip with clarite seal essential for permanent slide preparations.
If the glycerin should penetrate the clarite ring, it may be necessary to
seal the cover slips with an asphaltum ring, applied by means of a brush
and slide turntable.

Final cleaning of the slides includes rubbing with xylolalcohol mix¬
ture, light washing with Vel and water, and polishing with a lint-free cloth.

Various other methods tried in the procedure proved less efficient than
the method outlined. Grass seeds were germinated on top of the water in a
finger bowl, but the volume of water made fixing, washing without loss,
and staining extremely difficult. Using the given procedure for fixing,
washing, and staining, one group of seedlings was run up through the al¬
cohol series, with 10-20-30-40-50-60-70-85-95% and absolute alcohol con¬
centrations, with a ten-minute period in each alcohol, and final concentra¬
tion in ten per cent glycerin. Not only did the procedure require more
time and extensive preparation of solutions, but the seedlings became
matted, trash accumulated about the roots, and no better results were
obtained from the alcohol series method. Another experimental procedure
was that of adding ten per cent glycerin to the seedlings in the perti dish
and allowing concentration to occur en masse. When each seedling was
selected and mounted in pure glycerin on the slide, the root hairs were
matted, or were destroyed in the transfer.

I

5 8 The Texas Journal of Science

The mounting technique itself may be more easily carried out by some
workers by concentrating the seedling in ten per cent glycerin on one of
the cover slips, adding pure glycerin and the other slip later, and then
dropping the two-slip combination into position on the slide where a drop
of clarite has been placed.

A microscopical study of the resultant permanent slides of grass seed¬
lings revealed slightly stained structures, including the root hair cells, nuclei
and peripheral cytoplasm; the vascular elements arrangement of the asym¬
metrical root cap cells; the regions of root hair formation and of cell elonga¬
tion; and the appearance of distorted and branched root hairs. Possibly
the most interesting feature of the slides is the fact that they afford a means
of tracing root hair development, from a slight bulge on the side of the
cell through root hairs of varying lengths, until the mature root hairs with
the tube nucleus is revealed.

THE ROLE OF DENITRIFYING BACTERIA IN THE GENESIS OF
FORMATIONS FOUND IN THE CARLSBAD CAVERN

M. Gerundo, M.D., Ph.D. and Guydell L. Schwartz, B.S., M.A.

From the Department of Laboratories
Lubbock Memorial Hospital
Lubbock, Texas

Cave formations have been considered as due to water erosion and
sedimentation of lime salts dissolved by water. Little or no attention has
been paid to the possibility that bacteria in the soil may be active agents in
the precipitation of lime and may take active participation in the origin
of these structures. It is our aim to present the preliminary phase of our
work and to offer the hypothesis that geological evolution is due in part to
the development of biological factors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples of soil were collected at various levels from areas where tourists
are not allowed. The procedure consisted in scraping the soil surface and
then collecting the sample in sterile jars. The areas covered in this first survey
were:

1. A rusty colored dry surface near the top.

2. An area nearby covered by molds.

3. Soil from the bottom of a green pool, midway down near the
Baby Hippo.

4. Water from a pool in the rear of the Papoose Room.

5. Soil embedded in gypsum midway between Baby Hippo and King’s
Palace.

6. Thin crust forming over the surface of water in a stagnant pool
in Big Room.

7. Soil at the base of a huge stalagmite still in process of formation
in the Big Room.

The media used were 12r/« gelatin in tap water, Winogradsky’s medium
for nitrifying bacteria, nitrate glucose medium, peptone potassium nitrate

Denitrifying Bacteria in the Carlsbad Cavern

59

agar, Gran’s medium, lactate Ringer’s solution. After various experimental
trials, a medium was prepared as follows:

Calcium nitrate _ 2.0 grams

(in separate solution added after sterilization)

Dipotassium phosphate _ 1.0 grams

Malic acid _ 2.0 grams

Succinic acid _ _ L _ _ _ 1.0 grams

Sodium chloride _ 1*5.0 grams

Magnesium sulphate _ _ _ 1.0 grams

Water, distilled _ 1000 cc.

Adjustment of pH was made at first, but growth was rapid and more
abundant when the medium was left acid.

For purpose of identifications, subcultures were made on phenol red
carbohydrate media, and Kligler’s, Russell’s, McConkey’s.

One gram of soil was inoculated in 500 cc. of liquid medium. After
thorough shaking to make a homogeneous emulsion, transfer in the amounts
of one, two, five and ten milliliters were made to flasks containing 100 cc.
of medium.

results

Direct bacterioscopic examination from the soil of the shallow green
pool showed numerous small bacilli, occasional bacillary forms with capsule,
numerous long bacilli with bipolar granules and a large number of cocco-
bacilli. All these bacteria were gram-negative except for a few gram-posi¬
tive coccoid forms. Direct examination of the soil at the base of the stalag¬
mite in process of evolution showed numerous crystals of calcium, car¬
bonate and oxalate and small motile gram-negative bacilli, many of which
had polar granules.

Most of the culture studies on several areas need only a passing com¬
ment. Cultures from the rusty dry area and nearby area were scanty, did
not reduce nitrate but formed nitrite from ammonia. Cultures on potas¬
sium nitrate-glucose medium from the dry area which has been designated
as soil in gypsum showed mostly colonies of fungi and gave no nitrite re¬
action.

The soil from the green pool gave good bacterial growth in nitrate agar,
lactate Ringer’s solution and gelatin. On subculture two types of colonies
were observed, one of yeast cells and the other of small gram-negative ba¬
cilli. Both yeasts and bacteria reduced nitrate to nitrite. The bacilli grew
well in peptone media and fermented dextrose and lactose producing acid
but no gas. They grew well on McConkey’s agar and produced no H2S in
Kligler’s medium. In fluid media they produced sediment, which sedimented
to the bottom. In the original mixed culture some amorphous hyaline struc¬
tures were seen, around which yeast bodies were arranged in circles. The
identity of these structures was not clearly established.

The bacteria from the base of the formation liquefied gelatin in which
they formed white-grayish round colonies with irregular contour, slightly
depressed center and granular appearance. The surface colonies became rap¬
idly confluent and formed a viscid membrane which fell to the bottom in

60

The Texas Journal of Science

large shreds through the liquefied medium. In Gran’s medium and in potas¬
sium nitrate-glucose medium the bacteria produced a slimy, soft, elastic
membrane enveloping sand particles into a large mass which did not break
loose even on energetic shaking. The bacteria were motile, small, about 1.5
to 3 microns, gram-negative and sometimes contained polar granules. They
did not grow in Winogradsky’s medium without potassium nitrate and
on Sabourand’s plates and grew scantily in lactate Ringer’s only after heavy
inoculum. Their growth was somewhat better and more rapid on media
containing peptone and very luxuriant on our calcium nitrate medium,
but was inhibited on McConkey’s plates, probably because of the presence
of bile salts. On nitrate agar plates the colonies were small, pin-point,
rather translucent; in fluid media there was slight turbidity with floccular
precipitate. Other characteristics noted were rapid reduction of nitrates to
nitrites; precipitation of calcium carbonate; production of ammonia and
of HoS; acid, then alkaline in presence of glucose and lactose. Microscopic
examination of the sediment of culture media revealed grains of sand
around which some amorphous matter had stratified in concentric layers and
numerous crystals. The sediment was promptly dissolved by dilute hydro¬
chloric acid with evolution of gas bubbles.

DISCUSSION

As we understand it, the common geological interpretation of the
formations is based upon water erosion and sedimentation. Although at the
present time it is not probable that a solution of the problem is at hand,
the biological factor in the formation of these structures may play a very
important role.

It is significant in our preliminary work that Active denitrifying bac¬
teria were predominant in those areas of the cave where structures are still
in progress of formation. Those areas which — let us say — have already set¬
tled and become stationary contained no denitrifying bacteria.

If the structures were dependent only on water erosion, those areas
which do contain abundant water should show more rapidly growing forma¬
tions. Instead, it appears that active formations are possibly only where
there is a moderate degree of moisture.

It is said that denitrifying bacteria have wide distribution in nature
and in soils; still no Carlsbad Caverns are formed. Thi§, is a sound state¬
ment, but it does not take into account the environment, the atmospheric
conditions, the abundance of C02, protection from human or natural inter¬
ferences, etc. If the soil of the cavern were plowed under every spring and
fall, and the whole of the cavern had the same amount of sunshine, oxygena¬
tion and wind erosion as the soil on the surface, there would not be any
wonder to admire.

The probable mechanism presented here as a hypothesis is that bacteria
acting on nitrogenous organic matter will decompose it to ammonium car¬
bonate which then will interact with calcium sulphate, or other calcium
salts present in the soil according to the equation (NH4)2C03 + Ca R =
CaCo.s + (NH4) 2R, where R represents the acid radicle of a calcium salt.
Drew in 1914 called attention to the presence of denitrifying bacteria in
sea-water in tropical seas and attributed to them an important role in the

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

6 1

formation of extensive chalky mud flats of the Great Bahama Bank and
around the Florida Keys. He isolated a bacterium, Pseudomonas calcis, which
produced precipitation of calcium carbonate in the culture flasks. When sand
or finely powdered calcium sulphate was added to the medium, calcium car¬
bonate would aggregate around ' the particles like a concretion around a
central nucleus. A large concretion often would be found having a number
of smaller concretions around it, in an arrangement suggestive of freely
budding yeast cells.

The description of this author, whose work seems entirely forgotten,
parallels our findings in regard to the formation and the green pool. Above
we have described these concentric amorphous structures, as well as crystal¬
line structures around which yeast cells arranged in circle. In our calcium
nitrate medium, precipitation and sedimentation occurred in a peculiar radial
pattern with numerous holes throughout, which was reminiscent of a cross
section of sponge, or of a crochet pattern. This sediment was promptly
soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid with evolution of gas bubbles.

The morphological and biochemical characteristics of the bacterium
isolated by Drew correspond fairly well to those we have described for the
denitrifying bacteria found in the formation. Therefore, it is considered
that the strain we have isolated is identical with Pseudomonas calcis (Drew).
However, it is probable that in the soil of Carlsbad Cavern various species
may occur which contribute to the formation of structures.

This work is in its preliminary phase. We do not hold that we have
answered a problem which had its origin in geological eras nor do we hold
that one single factor is operative. At this time our hypothesis is presented
as a suggestion or indication of work to be done. It is felt that the presence
of denitrifying bacteria in areas of active formation of the cavern is not
just an accidental finding but an essential part of terrestrial evolution. The
phenomenon may be of general nature and very likely true also for similar
structures throughout the world.

Eiterature cited

G. Harold Drew -1914 — On the precipitation of calcium carbonate in the sea by marine
bacteria, and on the action of denitrifying bacteria in tropical and temperate seas.
Carnegie Institution Publication 182 : 7-48.

CHLOROPHYCEAE OF ERATH COUNTY

Lula C. Gough
February 1926 — July 1927
Tarleton State College
Stephenville, Texas

CHLOROPHYCEAE OF ERATH COUNTY
INTRODUCTION

The county in which the plants given below were found is located
near the cener of Texas. It lies between parallels 31°S0’ and 32°3T and
between meridians 97° 5 0’ and 99° 3 2’. The elevation ranges from one
thousand feet around Bluffdale to seventeen hundred and fifty feet south
of Thurber. /

62

The Texas Journal of Science

The mean annual temperature of the county is between sixty-five and
seventy degrees, but the section of country is so far inland that there are
large seasonal and diurnal ranges. It will be interesting to note, however,
that these ranges do not affect the growth of Chloropyceae to so great a
degree as they do the land plants.

The rainfall of the county averages from twenty-five to thirty inches.
From February 1926 till February 1927, it was twenty-five and eighty-
eight one hundredths inches. The winter and spring months received about
two-thirds of this precipitation. The maximum in Stephenville for that year
was five and eighty-three hundredth inches for the month of May, and the
minimum was none for the month of February. Local rain storms are some¬
times excessive, sweeping temporarily all traces of the Chlorophyceae.
Gravel bottoms and rocky sides of the streams, however, seem to hold the
spores, and the group is not long in re-asserting itself.

The average evaporation capacity of the atmosphere is about fifty
inches, but in the summer season it ranges around seventy-five inches, and
many of the stock ponds and streams either dry out entirely or stand in
pools. A few of the larger streams continue to run throughout the year,
but they become quite sluggish and it is in these that our most fertile fields
are found for the Algae. The drainage on the prairie part of the county
is simple, without extensive denundation. The stream beds are broad and
have only slight banks. In the rougher country towards the Callahan di¬
vide, small canyons appear, the run off is rapid, and many of the streams
are of the wet weather variety.

While the sluggish streams were sources for the most active study,
standing water, where these bodies are perennial, were quite productive.
Club lake at Stephenville always gave fruitful returns for research. Thurber
Lake bore few hliaments and those were chiefly oedogonia, but the smaller
growths were constantly to be found about the bases of cat tails and on
the underneath of lily leaves.

Collecting was at its best in the fall, for there were times in which
it seemed that each plant was rivaling its neighbor in its effort to make
ample preparation for the survival of its species. Reproductive bodies were
found in all stages. Collecting was good through the winter. There were
few heavy rains and vegetative masses seemed to withstand the run-offs.
Sporing on many of the plants did not cease throughout the year. Freezing
affected developments little. Chromatophores were sometimes disturbed or
broken down, but enough of the plants were left uninjured to make con¬
tinuous functioning seemed unimpaired. Summer was least profitable in
its collecting possibilities. This was due either to the fact that many of the
water supplies were dry, or to the scarcity of reproductive bodies. The
plants in evidence at this season seemed to be enlarging the thallus rather
than producing those spores which are so often necessary to identification.

Since it is impossible to classify Chlorophyceae in the open, all speci¬
mens were carried to the laboratory, sorted by the aid of the microscope,
and the duplicates discarded.

The writer preserved her specimens largely in solutions, the most pre¬
ferred being "Universal Fixative.” This preservative is made up of 2J4 c*c*

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

6 3

of acetic acid and 6V2 cx. of formalin added to 100 cx. of 50% alcohol.
The plants retained their color well in this solution and the transfer to
permanent slides was rapid and easy. Temporary slides of one celled plants
or of rare specimens were made into permanent slides at once.

While Collins in his "Green Algae of North America3’ recognizes the
drying method of preservation as the best, the writer of this article found
it almost valueless. Preservation on mica is good, but the making of the
permanent slides seemed more logical. Preservation by drying either on
paper or on mica, would, of course, make a less cumbersome form for
herbarium use, and would be less subject to destruction.

To preserve the specimens by drying Collins says to place them in
water, slip the mounting paper beneath them, and raise. The paper bear¬
ing the plant is placed on a thick dryer, a cloth put over the specimen,
and then a second dryer. The absorbing sheets are changed as soon as they
become moist, but the cloth is not removed till the plant is entirely dry.
The plant will be found to cling to the mounting paper. Minute forms are
spread thinly on paper and allowed to dry without cover or pressure. Or,
better still, water is added to the minute forms and they are dropped from
a pipette on to mica where they can be examined without removal.

The plants studied were largely of an attached nature, their long
fil laments being drawn down stream by the running water. Some of the
smaller plants were attached to these filiaments, while others of them grew
as plankton, and were floating where the current was checked. Many of
them were found at the bottom of the aquaria where specimens had been
retained for future study.

The plates given at the close of the paper are camera lucida drawings,
and are only illustrative of the less familiar specimens. The scale is given
for the plate, unless the different drawings on a page are of different scales
and then the measure is given with each drawing.

In the classification of Chlorophyceae which follows, both the outline
and the descriptions have followed those given by Collins in his book
"The Green Algae of North America,” except in the case of the Desmi-
daceae. Here Cook’s "British Desmids,” 18 87, was the authority followed.

Class I. Heterocontia

Order I. Confervales

Family I. Confervaceae
Genus I. Tribonema

Species I. T. bombycinia (Agardh) Derb. and Sol.

II. T. utriculosum Kutz.

Genus II. Ophiocytium

Species I. O. parvulum var. circinatum ( Wolle) Lemmerman.

Class II. Chlorophyceae
Order I. Conjugales

Family I. Desmidaceae
Sec. A. Leiosporae

Genus I. Closterium

Species 1. C. moniliferum Ehr. Inf.

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The Texas Journal of Science

2. C. dianae Ehr. Inf us.

3. C. striolatum Ehr. Abh. Berl. Akd.

Sec. B. Cosmosporae

Genus I. Euastrum

Species 1. E. verrucosum Ehr. Abh. Berl. Akd.
Genus II. Cosmarium

Species 1. C. psetidonitidulum Nordst.

2. C. iindvlatum Corda. Aim. Carls.

3. C. reniforme Archer

4. C. turpini Breb. Liste. Desm.

5. C. coela him Ralfs. Desm.

6. C. cyclinium Lundell. Desm.

7. C. mo nili forme (Turpe) Ralfs. Desm.

8. C. Cymatopleurum Nordst. Desm. Spetz.
Genus III. Staurastrum

Species 1. S. bullosum Bennet, Roy
2. S. punctulatum Breb.

Family II. Zygnemaceae.

Genus I. Zygnema

Species 1.

Z. pectinatum (Vauch) Agardh.

2.

Z. cruciatum (Vauch) Agardh.

3.

Z. pur pur em Wolle.

4.

Z. stellmum (Muller) Agardh.

Genus II. Spirogyra.

Species 1.

S. por toe alis (Muller) Cleve

2.

S. condensata (Vauch) Kutzing

3.

S. varians (Hass) Kutzing

4.

S. dubia Kutzing

5.

S. bell is (Hass) Cleve

6.

S. setiformis (Roth) Kutzing

7.

S. ternata Ripart

8.

S. weberi Kutzing

9.

S. spreeiana Rabenhorst

10.

S. quadrat a (Hass) Petit

11.

S. gr evil lean a (Hass.) Kutzing

Family III. Mesocarpaceae

Genus I. Mougeotia

Species 1. M. genuflexa (Dillw) Agardh

2. M. parvula Hassall

3. M. sphaerocarpa Wolle

4. M. crassa (Wolle) DeTonti

5. M. quadran gula fa Hassall
Genus II. Gonetonema

Species 1. G. ventricosum Wittrock

Order II. Volvocales

Family I. Chlamydomonadaceae
Genus I. Chlamydomonas

Species 1. C. communis Snow

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

65

Genus II. Haematococcus

Species 1. H. pluvialis Flotow
Genus III. Chlorogonium

Species 1. C. euchlorum Ehrenberg
Family II. Volvocaceae
Genus 1 . Pandorum

Species 1. P. morum (Hull) Bory
Family III. Tetrasporaceae
Genus I. Palmella

Species 1. P. miniatus Leiblein
Genus II. Tetraspora

Species 1. T. gelatinosa ( Vauch) Desvaux
2. T. lubrica (Roth) Agardh
Genus III. Innefigiata

Species 1. /. neglecta W. and G. S. West

Order III. Protococcales

Family I. Protococcaceae
Genus I. Chlorococcum

Species 1. C. humicola (Nag) Rahenhorst
Genus II. Characium

Species 1. C. naegelii A. Baun

2. C. ambiguum Hermann
Family II. Scenedesmaceae
Genus I. Palmellococcus

Species 1. P. miniatm (Leiblein) Chodat
Genus II. Schizochlamys

Species 1. S. gelatinosa A. Braun
Genus III. Scenedesmus

Species 1. S. obliquus (Turp.) Kutzing
2. S. bijuga (Turp.) Wittr.

Family III. Hydrodictyaceae
Genus I. Pediastrum

Species 1. P. bory a man (Turp.) Meneghini

Order IV. Ulotrichales

Family I. Ulotrichaceae
Genus I. Ulothrix

Species 1. U. zonata (Web. and Mohr.) Kutzing
2. U. osillarina Kutzing
Genus II. Schizomeris

Species 1 . S. leibleinii Kutzing
Genus III. Microspora

Species 1. M. amoena (Kutz.) Rabenhorst
2. flocca Vauch Thuret
Family II. Praiosolaceae
Genus I. Prasiola

Species 1. P. crispa (Lightf.) Meneghihi
Genus II. Schizogonium

Species J. S. murale Kutzing I j

Family III, Oedogoniaceae j i 4

66

The Texas Journal oe' Science

Genus I. Oedogonium

Species 1. Oe. varians Wittrock and Lund

2. Oe. boscii (LeCl.) A. Braun

3. Oe horlsianwn (LeCl) ) Wittrock
Genus II. Bulbocheate

Species 1. B. mirabilis Wittrock
Family IV. Chaetophoraceae
Genus I. Diphlocheate

Species 1. D. solitaria Collins
Genus II. Chaetophora

Species 1. C. elegaiis (Roth) Agardh

2. C. attenuata Hazen

3. C. incrassata (Huds.) Hazen
Genus III. Draparnarldia

Species 1. D. glomerata (Vauch.) Agardh
Genus IV. Stigeoclonium

Species 1. S. lubricum (Dillw) Kutzing
Genus V. Pleurococcus

Species 1. P. vulgaris Meneghini
Genus VI. Gloicoccus

Species II. G. mucosus A. Braun
Family V. Coleochaetaceae
Genus I. Coleocheate

Species 1. C. scutata Brebisson
Family VI. Herposteiraceae
Genus I. Herposteiron
Species 1. H. confervicola Nageli

Order V. Siphonocladiales

Family I. Cladophoraceae
Genus I. Cladophora

Species 1. C. glomerata (L) Kutzing

2. C. canal icularis (Roth) Kutzing
Genus II. Pithophora
Species 1. P. varia Wille.

2. P. oedogonia (Mont) Wittrock
Family II. Dascladaceae
Genus I. Bathophora

Species 1. B. oerstedi Agardh

Order VI. Siphonales

Family I. Vaucheriaceae
Genus I. Vaucheria

Species 1. V. sessilis (Vauch) DeCandole

2. V. terrestris (Vauch) DeCandole

3. V. germinata (Vauch) DeCandole

4. V. longipes Collins
Genus II. Dichotomosiphon

Species 1. D. tuberosus (A. Braun)

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

67

CHLOROPHYCEAE OF ERATH COUNTY

Class I. HETEROKONTAE.

Motile cells with two cilia of unequal length; chromatophore more or
less distinctly yellow green; reserve material oil, not starch; no pyrenoids.

Order Confervales.

KEY TO THE ORDER OF CONFERVALES.

1. Chiefly aquatic; filamentous or unicellular, without branching prolonga¬
tions.

2. Unicellular, or filamentous; cell wall with little cellulose; sexual repro¬
duction unknown. 1. conferva ceae .

Family I. confervaceae.

Cells free, or united in attached or free monosiphonous filaments; cell
wall with little cellulose, mostly pectin; chromatophores usually many,
disk-shaped, always without - pyrenoid, cells containing more or less oily
matter but no starch; one or more nuclei; asexual reproduction by zoo¬
spores with two cilia of unequal length, or by aplanospores which often
seem to take the place of zoospores under certain conditions of environ¬
ment; all plants of fresh water.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF CONFERVACEAE

1. Cell elongate. 2.

2. Cells united into filaments. 1. tribonema

2. Cells solitary or attached by their slender bases.

2. OPHIOCYTIUM.

1. Tribonema Agardh.

Filament at first attached by a special basal cell, later floating. Chroma¬
tophores disk shaped, yellowish green, without starch, but producing oil,
two or several in a cell. Cell-wall thin, formed by deposition of layers
composed largely of pectic acid with little cellulose. For the dispersal of
the zoospores, the cells pull apart from the middle, so that H-shaped sections
are left.

T. bombycinum (Agardh.) Derb. and Sol. Filaments forming a solid,
yellowish or green floccose mass, 6-11 u. in diam. when mature; cells cylin¬
drical or somewhat inflated, 2-4 times as long as the diameter; chromato¬
phores several in a cell, small or of moderate size, scattered or crowded,
glistening oil drops often numerous; cell wall rather thin. Aquarium,
Tarleton State College.

T. utriculosum (Kutz.) Filaments long and often inflated, but some¬
times cylindrical; cells 11-16.5 u. in diameter, 1 V2-6 times as long; chroma¬
tophores large and often crowded; cell wall thicker than in the smaller
species. Plankton in drain from Club lake, Stephenville.

2. Ophiocytium Naegeli, 1849.

Cells free or attached to water plants, multinucleate, cylindrical or
claviform, one end frequently capitately swollen, straight, arched, curved

68

The Texas Journal of Science

intp S form spirally, solitary or in umbellate or corymbose families; chroma-
tophores many, parietal, without pyrenoid, cells sometimes containing
yellowish globules; asexual reproduction by aplanospores, or by biciliate,
ovoid, oblong zoospores, formed few to many in the cell, escaping by the
breaking off of the cap-like end of the cell; in some species germinating
directly at the summit of the mother cell, in others entirely independently.

1. O. Paru ulum Yar. Circinatum (Wolle) Lemmerman, 1899. Cells
solitary, 10-13 u. diameter, in a spiral of two to many turns, both ends
rounded. Always in spiral. Water trough at Morgan’s Mill. Plate II, figure 9.

Class II. CHLOROPHYCEAE.

Algae of the true green color, usually producing starch, almost always
with pyrenoids; reproduction in most cases by pyriform zoospores, with
cilia of equal length, attached to the smaller end; mostly two, sometimes
four, in a few genera many cilia; zoogametes of similar forms, with two or
four cilia.

Motionless spores of various kinds, and sexual reproduction by oogonia
and antheridia, are found in many genera.

KEY TO THE ORDERS OF CHLOROPHYCEAE

1. Fronds of one or more cells. 2.

1. Fronds usually of relatively large size, multinucleate, without distinc¬
tion of cells. 6. SIPHONALES.

2. Vegetative cells ciliate and motile, always or except during resting
periods, or easily passing into a motile condition. 2. volvocales.

2. Vegetative cells motionless; reproductive cells motile or not. 3.

3. Reproduction by zygospores formed by the union of two

non-motile cells. 1. conjugales.

3. Reproduction by zoospores, zoogametes, or aplanospores, not by zygotes

as above. 4.

4. Cells solitary or in spherical or net-like combinations.

3 . PROTOCOCCALES.

4. Cells forming simple or branched filaments or membranes, rarely
proliferously branching and vesicular cells. 5.

5. Cells uninucleate, chromatophore usually single, disk-, net-, or

star-shaped. 4. ulotrichales.

4. Cells multinucleate, chromatophore net-shaped, or of

numerous small disks in a cell. 5. siphonocladiales.

Order I. Conjugales.

Grass-green algae, starch forming, with cell walls of cellulose, whose
cells divide in only one direction, and are either isolated or in filaments; not
incrusted with lime. Zygospores formed by the union of the protoplasm of
two similar or only slightly different cells "aplanogametes”; after a longer
or shorter resting period the outer membrane of the spore breaks, and a
new vegetative development sets in. Thick walled resting cells "akinetes”
and asexual spores "aplanospores” sometimes formed; no motile spores.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF CONJUGALES.

1, Cells usually diveded by constriction into symmetrical halves; solitary
or in filaments; the cells arising from the germinating zygospores either

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

69

taking the normal form or producing 2-8 such forms. 1. desmidaceae.
1. Cells cylindrical, without constriction, always united into filaments;
the new filament always formed directly from the zygospore. 2.

2. The entire protoplasmic contents of the conjugating cells uniting to
form the spore. 2. zygnemaceae.

2. Only a part of the contents of the conjugating cells used for the
spore. 3. mesocarpaceae.

1. DESMIDACEAE.

Taken from Cook’s "British Desmids” 1887.

One-celled algae. Cells for the most part compressed, single, segregate or
geminate, or a larger number united into a band, or filament; variable in
form, usually constricted in the middle, so as to constitute two symmetrical
semi-cells.

Sect. A. Leiosporae.

Sect. B. Cosmosporae.

Section A. Leisporae. Zygospores normally smooth.

Genus 1. Closterium.

Fronds elongate, attenuated, not constricted at the middle, the junction
of the segments marked by a pale transverse band. Endochromes often ar¬
ranged in longitudinal fillets, and at each extremity having a terminal clear
space, in which are active granules; empty fronds smooth or with longi¬
tudinal striae, never granulated.

1. Fronds tapering, lower margin concave, often inflated in the centre,
inclined downwards toward rounded or sub-acute ends, empty fronds with¬
out striae.

a. Fronds lunate, curvature considerable.

1. C. moniliferum. Ehr. Inf.; 183 8. Fronds stout, five or six times
as long as broad, lunate, extremities tapering; upper margin convex, lower
concave, with a central inflation, ends rounded; large granules conspicuous,
in a single longtitudinal series; empty frond colorless, without striae, sutures
not evident. Fish pond, Tarleton State College.

2. C. dianae. Ehr. Infus.; 1 83 8. Fronds slender, six or eight times
as long as broad, crescent shaped, much curved, rapidly attenuated, upper
margin very convex, lower very concave, without central inflation, ends
sub-acute, with very slight emargination at the upper outward extremity;
large granules in a single series; empty frond somewhat straw colored, or
faintly reddish, without stiae, suture evident. Zoospores globose, smooth.
Club lake, Stephenville.

b. Frond slightly curved, not lunate.

1. C. striolatum. Ehr. Abh. Berl. Akad., 1833. Frond from six to ten
times as long as broad, lunate, attenuated; upper margin convex, slightly
depressed in the centre, lower concave, ends very obtuse, rounded; large
granules in a single series; empty frond reddish, especially near the ends,
striae very numerous, crowded, transverse sutures usually three. Zygospores
orbicular, smooth. Aquarium, Tarleton State College.

Section B. Cosmosporae. Zygospore usually warted, spinulose, or ornate.

Genus II. euastrum. Ehr. 1831.

Frond longer than broad, compressed; deeply constricted into two-

70

The Texas Journal of Science

lobed or sinuated segments, segments usually pyramidal, 5 or 3 lobed or
merely sinuous, possessing variously disposed circular inflated proturber-
ances; lateral lobes opposite, very rarely radiant, rounded or sinuated at
extremities; end lobes acutely incised or emarginate at the centre, rarely
only concave, central constriction linear.

E. verrucosum. Ehr. Abb. Berl. Akad. 1833. Frond somewhat longer
than broad, rough all over with conic granules; segments three-lobed, some¬
what divergent, all the lobes broad, cunate with a very broad shallow ex¬
ternal sinus. Empty frond inflated and verrucose; semi-cells with one large
inflation, and a smaller one on each side, two on end lobe. Fish pond, Tarle-
ton State Campus. Plate I, figures 2 and 5.

Genus III. cosmarium.

Frond more or less constricted; segments undivided, usually rounded,
sometimes slightly sinuated, or rarely slightly contracted, somewhat ex¬
tended and truncate at the ends, never notched, neither provided with
spines nor processes; end view elliptic, and sometimes each side with a
lateral opposite inflation, or circular.

1. Margin of segments entire, neither crenulate nor granulate.

1. C. pseudonitidulum. Nordst. Norges Desm. 1873. Medium size with
habit of C. nitidulum; one fourth part longer than broad, deeply con¬
stricted with narrow linear sinus, widened at the extremity; semi-cells
somewhat trapezoid, attenuated from the broad base to the rounded truncate
apex, lower angles rounded, end view elliptic, side view ovate, circular,
membrane punctate. Aquarium, Tarleton State College.

2. Margins of segments crenate or slightly undulate, surface not
granulate.

1. C. undulatwn. Corda. Aim. Carls. 183 9. Fronds small, slightly
longer than broad; constriction linear; segments semi-orbicular, ends and
sides broadly rounded, crenate or minutely undulate at the margin, end
view elliptic. Zygospores orbicular, spinous; spines elongate, slender, swollen
at the base, and diveded at the apex. Size, length 60 u.; diameter 44 u. (K) ;
diameter 40-44 u. (W) ; length 54 u.; diameter 39 u. ( Wille) . Little Paluxy
creek.

3. Fronds rough on the surface with pearly granules, which give a
denticulate appearance to the margin.

1. C. reniforme. Archer in Journ. Bot., 1874. Segments reniform, in
end view equally elliptic, zygospores globose, armed with long spines, which
are cleft at the summit. Fish Pond, Tarleton State Campus.

Size. Length 5 0 u.; diameter 50 u.

2. C. tur pint . Breb. Liste. Desm., 186 5. Fronds about as long as broad,
constriction deep linear, segments twice as broad as long, somewhat trian¬
gular, much inflated and broadly rounded at the base, rapidly attenuated,
sides concave, ends truncate, rough all over with scattered pearly granules,
and with a central granulated proturbcrance, end view elliptic, with cen¬
tral, broad truncate proturberances on each side. Aquarium, Tarleton State
College.

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

71

3. C. coelatum. Ralfs. Desm. 1848= Frond in front view about as
long as broad, sub-orbicular, constriction deep, linear, segments semi-
orbicular, with six broad crenatures at margin, rough at margin with
scattered pearly granules, and at the centre with granules somewhat con¬
centrically arranged; end view twice as long as broad, with a broad in¬
flation at each side. Pond on Chandler Farm. Plate I, figure 6.

Size. Diameter 40 u. (Wo.); length 53 u.; diameter 50 u. (C.). Plate
I, figure 1.

4. C. cyclicum. Lundell Desm. Suec. 1871. Medium size, broader than
long; perfectly circular, deeply constricted with a narrow linear sinus;
semi-cells semi-circular, margin crenate with 12 crenations, end view
narrowly elliptic, side view dilated upwards, with apex somewhat truncate;
cell membrane about the margin obsoletely granulate-plicate, with folds ar¬
ranged in a regular concentric series.

Size. Length 49-52 u.; diameter 52-5 5 u. (L.). Pond on Chandler
Farm.

3. Fronds smooth.

1. C. moniliforme. (Turp.) Ralfs. Desm. 1848. Frond minute, in
front view twice as long as broad, constriction deep; segments spaerical,
smooth; end view circular. Zygospores globose, smooth.

Size. Length 26 u.; diameter 16-21 u. (N.) ; diameter 16-24 u. (Wo.);
length 25-36 u.; diameter 18 u. (D.) ; zygospore 37 u. (L.). Fish pond,
Tarleton State Campus.

2. C. cymatopleurum. Nordst. Desm. Spetz. (1872). Large, one third
longer than broad, deeply constricted with a narrow linear sinus, broad
outwards, semi-cells trapezoid, narrowed upwards from a subreniform base,
sides nearly straight, slightly undulated, dorsal margin rounded, truncate,
lower angles rounded; end view oval, with transverse granulate folds about
each pole; side view elliptically orbicular. Membrane thick, punctate.

Size. Length 85-92 u.; diameter 64 u. (N.); length 82-86 u.; diam¬
eter 60-70 u. (N.). Aquarium, Tarleton State College.

Genus IV. Staurastrum. Meyen 1829.

Fronds more or less deeply constricted at the middle; segments broader
than long, often provided with spines or processes, end view angular or
radiate, or circular, with a lobed radiate margin, or very rarely compressed,
with a process at each extremity.

I. Segments with each of the opposite lateral extremities furnished
with a bifid or forked spine, its subdivisions subulate-acute, in end view
terminating the angles and appearing as a mucro-like spine with or without
intermediate spines.

1. S. btdlosum. Bennett, Roy. Micr. Journ. VI, 18 86. Fronds moder¬
ately large, semi-cells elliptical, more than twice as broad, triangular in
end view united by a narrow isthmus. Each segment with a hemispherical
projection, which is very conspicuous, especially in end view. Frond and

74

The Texas Journal of Science

4.

9. Cells 30-40 u. diameter. 3.

10. Chromatophores 2 or rarely 3.

10. Chromatophores regularly 3 or more.

11. Cells 43-50 u. diameter.

12. Spores lenticular.

12. Spores ovoid, ellipsoid, subglobular.

13. Cells less than 100 u. diameter.

14. Fertile cells distinctly swollen.

15. Cells 90-100 u. diameter.

15. Cells 80 u. diameter or less.

16. Cells 100-110 u. diameter; chromatophores 4-8. 6. s

17. Cells 5 0-80 u. diameter.

18. Cells 50-65 u. diameter. 7.

19. Chromatophores single.

20. Spore membrane smooth.

21. Fertile cells little if any swollen. 8

21. Fertile cells distinctly swollen.

22. Filaments 9-23 u. diameter.

22. Filaments 24-3 3 u. diameter.

2 3. Inflation rounded or tapering at the ends.

24. Cells 18-21 u. diameter, 10-15 times as long. 9.

2 5. Cells 24-40 u. diameter; fertile cells quadrately swollen.

10.

2 5. Cells 28-3 3 u. diam., fertile cells somewhat rounded.

11. S. GREVILLEANA.

S. VARIANS.

11.
12.

S. DUBIA.

13.

15.

14.

. S. BELLIS.

16.

17.

SETIFORMIS.

18.

S. TERNATA.

20.

21.

S. WEBERI.

22.

23.
25.

24.

S. SPREEIANA.
S. QUADRATA.

1. S. porticalis (Muller) Cleve, 1868. Filaments 30-48 u. diam., cells
2-6 diam. long; chromatophore single, quite broad, dentate, bright green,
making 3-4 turns in the cells; fertile cells little or not at all swollen; spores
ovoid or subglobular, yellowish at maturity, IV2 diam. long; diam. up to 42
u. Club lake, Stephenville.

2. S. condensata (Vauch) Kutzing, 1843. Filaments 48-54 u. diam.,
cells as long as broad, or slightly longer or shorter; chromatophores single,
slender, with large pyrenoids making V2-IV2 turns in the cell; fertile cells
not inflated; spores ellipsoid, IV2 diam. long up to 30 u. diam., conjugation
usually lateral. Fish pond, Tarleton State College.

3. S. variant (Hass) Kutzing 1849. Filaments 33-40 u. diam., cells
2-3 diam. long; chromatophores single, quite broad, dentate or serrate, mak¬
ing 1-3 turns in the cell; fertile cells swollen only on the side of conjuga¬
tion; cells in filament which have not conjugated often much swollen and
distorted; spores ovoid or ellipsoid, 1V2-2V2 diam. long; diam. 3 3-3 8 u. Nine
miles east of Stephenville, stream.

4. S. dubia Kutzing 1 8 5 5a. Filaments 43-50 u. diam., cells \V2-2V2
diam. long; chromatophores 2, rarely 3, narrow, making 1-3 turns in the
cell; fertile cells slightly swollen; spores brownish at maturity, ovoid-
ellipsoid, about 40 u. diam., 1-2 diam. long. Drain from Club lake, Steph¬
enville.

5. S. bellis (Hass.) Cleve, 1868. Filaments 65-80 u. diam., cells l1/2-3
diam. long; chromatophores 5-6, narrow, with large prominent pyrenoids;
almost straight, or making half to three quarters of a turn in a cell; fertile

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

75

cells swollen and shortened; swelling sometimes only on the side opposite
to the conjugation; spores brown at maturity, lenticular, diam. 84-90 u.,
thickness 5 5-60 u. Buck farm, creek.

6. S. setiformh (Roth) Kutzing, 1845. Filaments 100-110 u. diam.,
cells about as long as broad, sometimes nearly two diam. long; 4 rather
broad chromatophores, irregular, with sinuate margins and many large pyre-
nois, making 34-1 turn in the cell; fertile cells not swollen; spores ellipsoid,
diam. 96-100 u. Little Paluxy creek. Plate II, fig. 1.

7. S. ternata Ripart, 1876. Filaments 50-65 u. diam., cells 134-2 diam.
long, somewhat swollen at the middle; chromatophores three, narrow, with
apparent middle line uniting the pyrenoids, making 134-2 turns in the cell;
fertile cells swollen and shortened, often shorter than the diameter, so that
the spores are turned at right angles to their usual position; spores ovoid,
45-66 u. diam., l/2 diam. Paluxy river.

8. S. iveberi Kutzing, 1843. Filaments 22-28 u. diam., cells 6-16 diam.
long; chromatophore single, slender and loose, with large pyrenoids, making
3 34-6 turns in the cell; fertile cells not swollen, or only enough to con¬
tain the spores, which are ovoid, 134-2 diam. long, diam. 26-3 0 u. Nine
miles east of Stephenville.

9. S. spreeiana Rabenhorst, 1880. Filaments 18-21 u. diam., cells 10-2 5
diam. long; chromatophore single, slender, making 134-4 turns in the cell;
fertile cells swollen, not shortened, 3 0-42 u diam.; spores ellipsoid, yellow¬
ish at maturity, 2-3 diam. long, diam. up to 3 6 u. Burleson farm, small
stream.

10. S. quadrata (Hass.) Petit, 1847. Filaments 24-27 u. diam., cells
3-9 diam. long; chromatophore single, broad, making 134-5 turns in the
cell; fertile cells much swollen, up to 54 u. diam., appearance like a rec¬
tangle with rounded corners; spores ellipsoid or cylindric-ellopsoid, brown
at maturity, 1 V2 to 2 diam. long, diam. 42-48 u. Drain from Club lake,
Stephenville.

11. S. grevilleana (Hass.) Kutzing, 1849. Filaments 28-33 u.’ diam.,
cells 3-10 diam. long; chromatophore broad, usually single but occasion¬
ally two in scattered cells, making 4-5, sometimes 6-9 turns in the cell;
fertile cells much swollen; spores ovoid with rounded ends, yellowish at
maturity, 2-2*4 diam. long, diam. 30-36 u. Little Paluxy west of BlufTdale.

Family III. mesocarpaceae.

Cylindrical cells, always several times as long as broad, united into
unbranched filaments, rarely having short, rhizoidal branches. Chromato¬
phore an axial plate with several pyrenoids; nucleus at the middle of the
plate. Conjugation either between two cells of the same plant or of differ¬
ent filaments. Part of the protoplasm separates from the rest in the cell;
the part so separating unites with a similar part from the other cell to form
the zygospore, which is entirely in the tube connecting the cells, or ex¬
tends somewhat into one or both cells; spore varying in form, but usually
lentiform, with round, or four, or six-angled outline; outer membrane of
spore colored yellow or brown, smooth or variously sculptured. Partheno-
spores, akinetes, and aplanospores sometimes occur, much as in Zygnemaceae.

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The Texas Journal of Science

projection uniformly verrucose, fringed with colorless, equidistant, subulate
spines.

Size. Length 8 5 u.; diameter 38 u. (B). Lily leaf, Thurber Lake.

II. Segments without spines, end view angles rounded,
a. Fronds rough superficially with scattered granules.

1. S. punctulatum. Breb. in Ralfs Desm. 1848. Segments rough with
puncta like granules, elliptic, equal, end view with broadly rounded angles,
and slightly concave sides. Zygospore globose, spines long, rather broad at
the base, dichotamous at the apex.

Size. Length 45-50 u.; diameter 38-40 u. (N) ; diameter 27-36 u.
(K.); zygospore 29 u.; spines 14 u. (L.) ; length 27 u.; diameter 28 u.
( D. ) . Little Paluxy Creek.

Family II. zygnemaceae.

Filaments sometimes attached, more generally free, all cells except the
original basal cell equally capable of division; filaments simple or with
short rhizoidal branches, chromatophores of different shapes in different
genera; zygospores formed by the union of the contents of two cells, either
of the same filament (lateral conjugation), of distinct filaments (scaliform
conjugation) ; formed either in one of the two cells or in the passage way
between them. Spores with membranes of three layers, of which the middle
layer, mesospore, is the thickest and usually colored brown or yellow in the
ripe spore, and often with pits or other markings. In germination the two
outer layers are broken, the inner forming the membrane of the new plant,
which at once divides into an individual basal cell, and a continuously
divisible filament cell.

KEY TO THE GENERA ZYGNEMACEAE

1. Two cells uniting to form one before the formation of the spore. 2.

2. Chromatophores two, star-shaped. 1. zygnema.

2. Chromatophores one or more, parietal, more or less spiral.

2. SPIROGYRA.

1. ZYGNEMA Agardh., 1814.

Cells cylindrical, about as long as broad or somewhat longer; dissepi¬
ments smooth and even; two axillary stellate chromatophores in each cell,
each with a pyrenoid, the nucleus between the two. Conjugation lateral or
scalariform; zygospores formed either in the connecting tube or in one of
the cells; spore with median membrane colored, either smooth or pitted;
outer membrane colorless, smooth with prominences. Aplanospores formed
in unchanged vegetative cells and similar in appearance to zygospores.
Akinetes formed from single cells taking on a thick membrane and richer
contents; both apalanospores and akinetes exceptional.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF ZYGNEMA.

1. Spore formed in the tube. Sect, pectinata. 2.

1. Spore formed in one of the cells. 4.

2. Spore without thick lamellate membrane. 3.

3. Spore brownish. 1. z. pectinatum.

4. Spore with pitted median membrane,
sec. Scrobiculata.

5.

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

73

5. Spores uniformly globose.

6. Chromatophores distinct.

2.

z.

CRUCIATUM.

6. Chromatophores indefinite.

3.

z.

PURPUREM.

Spores usually oblong.

4.

z.

STELLINUM.

1. Z. pectinatum (Vauch.) Agardh, 1817. Vegetative cells 30-37 u.
diameter, 1-3 diameters long; membrance at first thin, later with thick
gelatinous sheath; conjugation scalariform; spore globose or broadly ellip¬
soid, about 50 u. diameter; membrance brown, distinctly pitted. Little
Paluxy nine miles east of Stephenville. Plate III, figures 6 and 7.

Var. anomalum (Ralfs) Kirchner, 1 878. Cells 40-50 u. diameter;
membrane very thick. Stream, Buck farm.

2. Z. cruciatum (Vauch.) Agardh, 1817. Vegetative cells 3 5-54 u.
diameter, as long or somewhat longer; conjugation scalariform; spores
globose, brown, about 40 u. diameter, median membrane finely punctate;
fertile cells not swollen. Paluxy River, near Bluffdale.

3. Z. pur pur em. Wolle, 1887. Diameter of vegetative cells 20-2 5 u.;
cells one or more, rarely two diameters in length. Primarily yellowish green,
but soon changes to a dark purple; fruiting filaments more or less genicu-
lated; zygospores more or less spherical; spore-bearing cells slightly or not
at all swollen. Little Paluxy, Burleson Farm.

4. Z. stellinnm (Muller) Agardh, 1824. Vegetative cells 2 5-36 u.
diameter, 1-3 diameters long; conjugation scalariform or lateral; spores
ovoid or oblong; 2 5-48 x 30-3 5 u., brown, median membrane without pits;
fertile cells hardly swollen. Rock Falls.

2. Spirogvra Link, 1820.

Cells cylindrical, one to many times as long as broad; dissepiments
either smooth and even with ring-like projections; chromatophores one or
more in a cell, in the form of parietal, more or less spirally bent, broad or
narrow bands, each containing several pyrenoids; nucleus in the middle of
t lie cell. Conjugation lateral or scalariform; spore formed in one of the two
conjugating cells; median membrane colored, smooth or pitted; germinat¬
ing spore producing a more or less clavate filament.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF SPIROGRA.

1.

Cells emitting a tube.

2.

2. Dissepiments plane.

3.

2. Dissepiments replicate.

19.

3.

Chromatophores single.

4.

3.

Chromatophores two or more.

10.

4. Spore membrane smooth.

5.

5.

Fertile cells not distinctly swollen.

6.

6.

Fertile cells distinctly swollen.

8.

6. Cells 30 u. or more in diameter.

7.

7.

Cells 30-48 u. diameter.

1. S. PORTICALIS.

7.

Cells 48-70 u. diameter.

2. S. CONDENSATA.

8. Fertile cells swollen on both sides.

9.

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The Texas Journal of Science

KEY TO THE GENERA OF MESOCARPACEAE

tional.

Zygospore formed as described for the family; aplanospores excep-

1. MOUGEOTIA.

1. mougeotia Agardh, 1824.

Cells cylindrical, several times as long as broad; dissepiments somewhat
lens-shaped; chromatophores an axillary plate with two or more pyrenoids;
zygospores formed in the tube, sometimes occupying the whole width of
one or both of the original cells; spore with two membranes, the outer
colored, smooth or sculptured; akinetes, when occurring, with single mem¬
brane, formed by a division of the mother cell into three parts, of which
the middle part becomes the akinete.

1.

1.

3.

5.

5.

7.

9.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF MOUGEOTIA

Fertile cells bounded by 2 cells. Sec. MESOCARPICAE. 2.

Fertile cell bounded by 4 cells, exceptionally by 2 or 3.

Sec. STAUROSPERMICAE. 8.

2. Conjugation scalariform. 3.

2. Conjugation lateral, rarely scalariform. 1. m. glenuflexa.

Spores smooth. 4.

4. Filaments 1 5 u. diam. or less. 2. m. parvula.

4. Filaments 20 u. diam. or more. 5.

Spore occupying more than the length of the tube. 6.

Spore occupying the tube only. 9.

6. Spore 45 u. diam. or less. 7.

Filaments 20 u. diam. or more. 8.

8. Filaments straight. 3. m. sphaerocarpa.

Filaments about 50 u. diam. 4. m. crassa.

10. Spore punctate. 5. m. quadangulata.

1. M. glenuflexa (Dillw.) Agardh, 1824. Filaments 2 5-33 u. diam.,
cells 2-5 diam. long, straight or genticulate, in the latter case often uniting
with other filaments, but not producing fruit in this way; spores globose
or ovoid, smooth, yellowish-brown, usually formed by lateral conjugation,
over the dissepiment between the two conjugating cells. Club lake, Steph-
enville. Plate I, figures 11 and 12.

2. M. parvula. Hassall, 1843b. Filaments 6-10 u. diam., cells 5-12
diam. long; spores globose, 8-24 u. diam. occupying the tube and some¬
times projecting very slightly into the filaments; membrane brown, smooth.
Paluxy river west of Bluffdale.

3. M. sphaerocarpa. Wolle, 18 87. Filaments 20-2 5 u. diam., cells 3-6
diam. long; spores spherical, about 40 u. diam., smooth, projecting from the
tube into the conjugating cells. Aquarium, Tarleton State College. Plate HI,
figure 4.

4. M. crassa (Wolle) DeToni, 1889. Filaments about 30 u. diam.,
cells 6-10 diam. long; fertile cells distinctly geniculate; spores 5 5-50 u.
diam., occupying fully the tube, but not projecting into the filaments,
spherical. Rock Falls.

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

77

5. M. quadrangulata Hassal, 1843b. Filaments 8-12 u. diam., cells
6-12 diam. long, fertile cells geniculate; spores quadrangular with trun¬
cate or incurved angles in front view, i.e., when placed so that the two fila¬
ments are in a plane at right angles to the line of vision; elliptic in form
in side view; occupying the width of both filaments; membrane uncolored,
pitted. Bosque river. Plate II, figure 13.

2. Gonetonema Wittrock, 1878.

Vegetative cells as in Mougeotia; conjugation unknown; apalanospores
with double membrane formed in the middle of an elongated cell, the por¬
tions on each side of the spore being shut off by the formation of cross walls.

G. ventricosum Wittrock, 1878. Filaments 5-7 u. diam., somewhat
bent geniculately, cells 6-16 oiam. long; spores obliquely elliptic, one side
being more convex than the other; seen from the side, elliptic, 22-29 x 13-16
u.; 12-15 u. thick, yellowish, smooth. Plate II, figures 3-6.

2. Volvocales

Vegetative cells always motile, or readily passing into a motile stage
as vegetative cells, solitary, or united into disk, spherical, or other shape,
but not into filaments. Cells uninucleate; chromatospores usually cup-shaped.

1. Cells free, never forming colonies. 1. chlamydomonadaceae.

1. Cells united in colonies. 2.

2. Colonies of various form, cells motile when free,

sometimes when in colonies. 3. tetrasporaceae.

2. Colonies spherical, ovoid or disk-shaped; cells

normally motile. 2. volvocaceae.

1 . Chlamydomonadaceae.

Cells free, globose, ovoid, fusiform, or sub-cylindrical, rarely attached
by gelatin threads, with 2-4 cilia; chromatophore thick, cup-shaped, some¬
times more or less split, with or without one or more pyrenoids; asexual re¬
production by zoospores, 2-8 formed in a vegetative cell, and similar to it in
form and structure, increasing to the normal size after leaving the mother
cell, also by akinetes; sexual reproduction, by gametes, similar to the zoo¬
spores, but usually smaller, sometimes 64 in a cell, in some cases with thick
membrane; in some cases the male gametes are smaller than the female; by
the copulation a spherical zygote is produced, usually red in color. When
germinating it becomes green and produces asexual zoospores in the same
way as do the vegetative cells.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF CHLAMYDOMONADACEAE.

1. Cells fusiform. 3. chlorogonium.

1. Cells spherical or ovoid. 2.

2. Protoplasmic threads through the cell wall. 2. haematococcus.

2. No protoplasmic threads in cell wall. 1 chlamydomonas.

1. chlamydomonas Ehrenberg, 1 833. Cells globose, ovoid, or sub-
cylindrical, with 2-4 cilia issuing from the same point cell with thin, rather
close coating chromatophore with one or more pyrenoids, and usually a red
stigma; asexual reproduction by repeated division, usually succeeded by the

78

The Texas Journal of Science

loss of cilia, or taking place during a Palmella-stage; sexual reproduction
either between similar gametes, or between male and female aplanospores.

C. communis Snow, 1903. Cells ovoid, ellipsoid, or cylindrical, 10-13
u. long, 6-8 u. diam.; color light yellowish green; stigma inconspicuous,
near anterior end; cilia 2, slightly longer than the cell; pyrenoid near
centre; division longitudinal. Fish pond, Tarleton State Campus. Plate II,
figure 16.

2. haematococcus Agargh, 1828.

Cells similar to those of Chlamydomonas but having in the motile
stages protoplasmic threads passing through the coating from the central
mass to the cell wall; coating usually quite thick, often different in form
from the cell itself; cell with or without red stigma, often deep red in
color; asexual reproduction by biciliate zoospores produced few in a cell;
probable sex reproduction by smaller biciliate gametes, produced many in
a cell; but actual conjugation has not been observed.

H. pluvialis Flotow, 1844. Resting cells spherical, 8-80 u. diam., deep
red with thick wall; dividing into 4-16 biciliate zoospores, with wide
hyaline coating, through which pass very fine, protoplasmic threads; after
a short time these spores come to rest, and divide like the parent cell;
this may continue for an indefinite number of generations; or at any time
the cells may enter into a long resting stage; under certain circumstances
the resting spore may divide into 4-32 small, narrowly cylindrical or fusi¬
form spores, probably gametes. Club lake, Stephenville, Texas,

3. chlorognium Ehrenberg, 1 8 37.

Cells spindle shaped, with two cilia at the forward end; coating very
thin; cells with two or more pyrenoids, a red stigma, and many vacuoles.
Asexual reproduction by division into 4 or 8 daughter cells; sexual repro¬
duction by zoogametes formed into 16-32 in a cell, by successive division;
copulation taking place between gametes of the same or different sizes,
forming a round red zygospore, at whose germination four new individu¬
als are produced, at first red, then green.

C. euchlorum Ehrenberg, 1837. Cells 2 5-3 5 u. long, 8 u. diam., with
thin wall and two cilia. In quiet water. Aquarium, Tarleton State College.
Plate II, figure 17.

Family 2. volvocaceae.

Motile, biciliate vegetative cells as in Chlaydomonadaceae, but united
in families of definite form, mostly spherical or ovoid, continuing motile.
Asexual reproduction by the formation of daughter cells, similar to the
parent; sexual reproduction varying much in the different genera, from
union of similar cells, to fully specialized oogonia and antheridia. Fresh
water plants.

1. pandorina, Bory, 1824.

Colony globose or subglobose, 8, 16, 32, 64 cells forming a botryoidal
mass surrounded by a wide gelatinous coating, cells with close thin mem¬
brane, red stigma and two cilia; chromatophore with one pyrenoid. Asexual

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

79

reproduction by continued division of the cells; sexual reproduction by the
union of similar biciliate gametes, produced singly in any cells of the colony;
by the union of two such gametes, of the same or different size, a zygote
is produced, of reddish color, which after a period of rest produces 1-3
large, biciliate red zoospores; these after a period of rest produce new col¬
onies by vegetative division.

P. morum (Hull.) Bory, 1824. Colony globose or ellipsoid, up to 220
u. broad, usually of 16 cells, rarely more or less; cells 9-15 u. diam.; zygote
with smooth external membrane. Fish pond, Tarleton State campus, Plate
III, fig. 5.

Family 3. tetrasporaceae.

Cells normally imbedded in gelatine, in structure like cells of Chlamy-
domonas, but usually without cilia; dividing vegetatively; asexual repro¬
duction by cells assuming 2 or 4 cilia, escaping from the gelatine, and after
a relatively long free existence, coming to rest, and producing a normal
colony directly or after a Palmella-stage; sexual reproduction by the di¬
vision of a cell into several zoogametes, by whose copulation is formed a
zygote, germinating at once or after a resting period.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF TETRASPORACEAE

1. Cells without order in formless gelatine. 1. palmella.

1. Cells of colony in some definite form and arrangement. 2.

2. Cells not radially arranged. 3.

3. Each cell enclosed in a tough elastic membrane. 3. innefigiata.

3. Membrane, if any, soft and pliable. 4.

4. Cells not on definite stalks. 5.

5. Mature frond an expanded membrane or long filament. 2. tftraspora.

1. Palmella Lyngbye, 1819.

Cells spherical, with bell-shaped chromatophore and one pyrenoid, with
broad gelatinous, diffluent membrane; asexual reproduction by cell division
in all directions, cells separating or joined in small families, forming ir¬
regular gelatinous masses; also by akinetes and by ordinary cells developing
cilia and becoming motile; sexual reproduction by ciliate gametes.

P. miniata Leiblein, 1830. Cells varying much in size, 3-40 u. diam.,
colored bv haematochrome, orange, brick or blood red, or yellow, solitary
or united 2-8, forming irregular gelatinous masses; membrane thick,
hvaline, more or less distinctly lamellate, diffluent; sporangia 10-12 u.
diam., each producing 4-8 zoospores; or a single cell developing to a bacil-
iate zoospore like form; sexual reproduction by gametes similar to the
smaller zoospores. Drain from sewage disposal plant, Stephenville.

2. TETRASPORA Link, 1809.

Colony (frond) gelatinous, membranaceous; saccate, tubular or plain;
containing globose cells in a single layer, scattered more or less in 2s and
4s, the thick cell wall diffluent into the general membrane. Asexual repro¬
duction by successive division of cells in the plane of the membrane; also
by cells becoming ciliate and motile; they later come to rest and lose their

so

The Texas Journal of Science

cilia, form a gelatinous membrane, and divide by 2s and 4s; also by akinetes.
Sexual reproduction by the conjugation of small biciliatc gametes, produced
8 in a cell, the zoospore germinating at once.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF TETRASPORA.

1. Frond cylindrical only when young if ever. 2.

2. Frond an irregular inflated sac. 2. T. gelatinosa

2. Frond at first tubular, but soon splitting into

irregular segments, often much perforated. 1. T. Uibrica

1. T. gelatinosa (Vauch) Desvaux. Forming inflated bullate masses,
not lacunose; very soft and gelatinous; cells 2.5-13 u. diam., very different
sizes being found side by side in the same frond. Paluxy river, east of Bluff-
dale. Plate III, figure 1.

2. T. lubrica (Roth) Agardh, 1824. Frond at first attached, tubular
or saccate; soon spliting and forming irregular expansions, often with many
rounded openings, sometimes quite net-like; up to 20 cm. long and wide,
very gelatinous, usually yellowish in color; cells 7-11 u. diam., generally
in fours. Bosque river south of Stephenville.

3. innefigata W. and G. S. West, 1897.

Cells ellipsoid or ovoid, with parietal chromatophore and pyrenoid
often colored bright red, united in spherical and sub-spherical families, the
cells superficial; each family surrounded by a tough, elastic membrane,
with various elastic folds, lobes, processes and spines, the older membrane
often including several generations of families; asexual reproduction by cell
division, the families separating as they become too large.

1. neglecta W. and G. S. West, 1897. Cells 3-5x6-10 u.; families
20-50 u. diam.; aggregations of successive families up to 3 50 u. In stand-
in'* water. Pond on Chandler farm. Plate II, figure 15.

3. Protococcales

Vegetative cells motionless, solitary or in spherical or net-like combi¬
nations, rarely filiform. Cells unirarely multinucleate; chromatophore usu¬
ally single, disk- or cup-shaped.

key to the families of protococcales

1. Cells free or united in gelatinous colonies. 2.

1. Cells united in regular, net- or disk-shaped colonies,

not gelatinous. 3. hydrodictyaceae.

2. Cells uninucleate, of determinate form. 3.

3. Cells of various form with single chromatophore. 4.

4. Cells dividing vegetatively. 2. scenedesmaceae.

4. Vegetative cell division rare and abnormal. 1. protococcaceae.

Family 1. Protococcaceae.

Unicellular, spherical or pyriform, rarely irregular; free or attached;
asexual reproduction by zoospores or aplanospores; sexual reproduction by
zoogametes in some instances; normal cell division rare and exceptional,
Marine or fresh water.

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

81

KEY TO THE GENERA OF PROTOCOCCACEAE

1. Cells attached at base or with basal prolongations. 2.

1. Cells without basal attachment or basal prolongation. 3.

2. Fresh water; chromatophore cup-shaped; one pyrenoid.

2. CHARACIUM.

3. Not endophytic. 4.

4. Cell membrane smooth. 1. chlorococcum.

1. chlorococcum Fries, 1825.

Cells spherical with usual thin membrane; chromatophore covering
nearly the whole cell wall, with one pyrenoid; asexual reproduction by bicil-
iate zoospores, produced many in a cell.

C. humicola (Nag.) Rahenhorst, 1868. Cells varying much in size,
3-2 5 u. diam., spherical, solitary or united by 2-4; membrane thin, uniform,
hyaline. Seepy drain. With Vaucheria in seepy spot near Bosque river.

2. characium A. Braun in Kutzing, 1849.

Cells with cup shaped chromatophore and one pyrenoid, from narrowly
lanceolate or subcylindrical to broadly ellipsoid or subglobose, often more or
less bent, attached by a pointed end or by a stipe like prolongation to the
substratum; asexual reproduction by biciliate zoospores of two sizes, escap¬
ing by a hole or slit in the cell, also by akinettes; the occurrence of gametes
is doubtful.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CHARACIUM

l.Not on animals. 2.

2. With longer or shorter stipe. 3.

3. Stipe without distinct basal disk. 4.

A Obtuse. 3 .

4. Acute. 8.

5. Lanceolate to ellipsoid. 6.

6. Ellipsoid: 7.

7. Stipe extremely short. 1 . C. naegelii.

8. Diam. 8 u. or less. 2. C. ambiguum.

1. C. naegelii A. Braun in Nageli, 1848. Cells 20-42x4-9 u., erect,
straight, when young elongate ellipsoid to lanceolate, rather obtuse; when
adult, short ellipsoid or ovoid, obtuse; stipe short, without basal disk. On
mougeota. Club lake, Stephenville. Plate III, figure 11.

2. C. ambiguum Hermann, 1863. Cells 24-32x4-8 u., erect, obliquely
and narrowly lanceolate or ensetiform, uniformly attenuate to each end,
apex cuspidate, with a sometimes curved apiculum; stipe short, slender,
not swollen at the base. Drying pond north of Stephenville. Plate III, figure
10.

Family 2. scenedesmaceae

Unicellular; cells spherical, or developing into various forms, with bell
shaped chromatophore, solitary, or united by gelatine into more or less reg-

82

The Texas Journal of Science

ular colonies; asexual reproduction by aplanospores. Fresh water, rarely
marine plants.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF SCENEDESMACEAE

1. Not living in the cells of animals. 2.

2. Cells contained in an extensive gelatinous thallus. 3.

2. No external gelatinous thallus. 5.

3. Sporangia not specialized. 4.

4. Thallus a membrane or mass. 2. schizochlamys.

5. Mature cell solitary. 6.

5. Mature cells united into colonies. 9.

6. Mother cell elongate, acicular or fuciforme. 4. rhaphidium.

6. Daughter cells formed in the interior of the mother cell. 7.

7. Cells rounded. 8.

8. Cells spherical. 1. palmellococcus.

9. Cells elongate, side by side in a single or double series. 3. scenedesmus.

1. palmellococcus Chodat, 1843.

Cells free, globose, with wall of two or more layers, with one or more
disk shaped chromatophores without pyrenoid, often concealed by an orange
red coloring; asexual reproduction by bipartition of the cell, also by division
into numerous aplanospores, which escape into a gelatinous vesicle.

1. P. miniatus (Leiblein) Chodat, 1894. Cells 3-15 u, diam., orange
red, with more or less oil; forming a gelatinous coating on walls of green¬
houses, etc. Very generally distributed. Drain from sewage disposal plant.

2. Schizochlamys A. Braun in Kutzing, 1849.

Cells spherical or ellipsoid, irregularly distributed through the colorless
gelatine, free floating or attached to water plants; chromatophore filling the
cell, without pyrenoid; cell dividing into two daughter cells, the mother
cell remaining in two or four pieces about the new cell. Only one species.

S. gclatinosa A. Braun, 1849. Forming an irregular mass up to 10 cm.
long, pale or yellowish green; cells globose or ellipsoid, 11-14 u. wide, some¬
times arranged by two or four. Stream nine miles east of Stephenville.

3. Scenedesmus, Meyen, 1829.

Colonies free, of 2-8 cells, in one row. or in two rows side by side;
ovoid or with pointed ends, all smooth or all or part with spines or horns;
chromatophore filling the cell, with one pyrenoid; division either by longi¬
tudinal walls through each cell, or also bv a wall through the length of a
colony, dividing each cell across the middle: daughter cells escaping either
singly or united into colonies; the free cells often differing considerably in
form from the normal colony cells.

KEY TO SPECIES OF SCENEDESMUS

1. Ends of cells obtuse or rounded. 2.

1. Ends of cells acute. 1. S. obliquus.

2. Cells all similar. 2. $. bijuga.

1. S. obliquus (Turp.) Kutzing, 1833. Colonies of 4-8 cells, cells

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

83

fusiform with acute ends, usually in a single series, 5-27x3-9 u. Fish pond,
Tarleton State Campus.

2. S. bijuga (Turp.) Wittr., Nordst., and Lagerh., Alg. colonies of
4-8 cells; cells oblong-ellipsoid or ovoid, with rounded ends, 7-18x4-7 u.,
arranged in a single or double row. Fish pond on Tarleton State Campus.
Plate I, figure 8.

4. Rhapidium Kutzing, 1845.

Cell elongate, acicular or fusiforme, straight or variously curved, with
pointed or rounded ends; chromatophore nearly covering the cell wall, usu¬
ally without pyrenoid; cell dividing by oblique cross walls into 2-32 daughter
cells, which separate soon after attaining their full size and shape; less fre¬
quently remaining attached in bundles, or to the wall of the mother cell.

1. R. falcatunr (Corda) Cook, 18 82. Cells bright or yellowish green,
fusiform at the middle, sometimes swollen at the middle, sometimes con¬
stricted; ends very acute; straight or variously curved. Fish pond, Tarleton
State Campus. Plate I, figure 15.

Var. fusiforme (Corda) Hansgirg, 1886. Fusiforme, gradually tapering
to each end; diam. 2-6 u.; cells 12-20 diam. long, f. clustered. Club lake,
Stephenville.

Family 3 . hydrodictyaceae.

Cells multinucleate, with net shaped chromatophone, with one or more
pyrenoids; united into families of definite form; asexual reproduction by
biciliate zoospores, uniting to form a family either in the mother cell, or
in a gelatinous vesicle issuing from it; sexual reproduction by gametes es¬
caping from the mother cell, and by copulation forming a resting zygote,
from which, by various intermediary stages, the normal vegetative form is
produced. Fresh water plants.

1. Pediastrum Meyen, 1829.

Colonies unattached, disk shaped, of round or star-shaped outline, con¬
tinuous or perforate, composed of marginal cells of different shape to the
interior cells; cells multinucleate with net-form parietal chromatophore and
one pyrenoid; asexual reproduction by biciliate zoospores, which escape from
the cell, enclosed in a vesicular coating, within which they arrange them¬
selves to form a new colony; or by the formation of a new colony in a cell,
without intervention of zoospores; sexual reproduction by smaller gametes,
more in a cell, copulating to form an irregular Polyedrium-like zygote,
within which a new colony is formed, in the same way as in a cell of the
mother colony.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PEDIASTRUM

1. Marginal cell bilobed. 2.

2. Lobes of marginal cells simple. 3.

3. Disk continuous. 4.

4. Margin not turbulate crenulate. L

5. Lobes ending in linear teeth. 1. P. Boryanum.

1. boryanum (Turp.) Meneghini, 1840. Cells 4-64, rarely 128, 10-20
u, wide, forming a continuous, circular or elliptical disk; disk cells 4-6

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The Texas Journal of Science

angled, the external side varying from prominent to repand; marginal cells
more or less emarginate or bilobed, each lobe ending in a longer or shorter
terete, obtuse to capitellate projection. Fish pond, Tarleton State Campus.
Plate I, figure 7.

4. ULOTRICHALES

Simple or branched filaments, sometimes membranes, rarely in few
celled families; cells uninucleate, chromatophones usually single, band-,
disk-, net-, or star-shape, generally with one or more pyrenoids. Marine or
fresh water.

1. Chromatophores star shaped; zoospores unknown. 2. prasiolaceae.

1. Chromatophores net-, disk-, or band-shaped. 2.

2. Vegetative cells true green. 3.

3. Fronds unbranched filaments. 4.

3. Fronds branched or membranous, rarely in few-celled families.

4. Sexual reproduction by isogamous gametes. 1. ulotrichaceae.

4. Sexual reproduction by oogonia and antheridia. 3.

5. Chromatophores net shaped. 3. oedogoniaceae.

6. Fronds filamentous, branching, or a few celled

family, usually with hairs. /•

7. Sexual reproduction by isogamous zoogametes. 4. chaetophoraceae.

7. Sexual reproduction by oogonia and antherida.

8. Vegetative filaments prostrate.

8. Vegetative filaments erect. 3. oedogoniaceae.

9. Oospore with cellular envelope; vegetative filaments

radiate or united into a disk. 5. coleocheataceae.

9. Oospore without cellular envelope; vegetative filaments

irregularly spreading. 6. herposteiraceae.

Family 1. ulotrichaceae.

Frond a normally unbranched, uniseriate filament, rarely multiseriate,
of uninucleate cells, each of which, with the exception of the basal cell,,
when present, is capable of producing spores or gametes. Chromatophore
either a single, complete, or broken band, or a network, or one of several
disks; usually with one or more pyrenoids. Asexual reproduction by bi-
or 4-ciliate zoospores, by akinetes, or by aplanospores; sexual reproduction
by the conjugation of biciliate zoogametes.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF ULOTRICHACEAE

1. Filaments monosiphonous below, parenchymatous above.

2. SCHIZOMERIS.

1. Filaments monosiphonous throughout. 2.

2. Cells forming a cylindrical or moniliform filament,

without external gelatinous sheath. 3.

3. Without pyrenoid. 3. microspora.

3. With one or more pyrenoids. 4.

4. Chromatophore a zonate band, sometimes incomplete. 5.

5. Apical and basal cells little if at all differentiated. 1. ulothrix.

1. ulothrix Kutzing, 18 83.

Filaments of a single series of uninucleate cells, all similar, and with

Cfilorophyceae of Erath County

85

the exception of the attached basal cell, capable of division and producing
spores. Chromatophores band shaped, with one or more pyrenoids. Asexual
reproduction by aplanospores and a k metes, also by 4-ciliate zoospores, with
red stigma, formed 1-4 in the cell, germinating immediately; sexual repro¬
duction by biciliate zoogametes formed 8 or more in the cell, germinating
after conjugation. External conditions may induce many modifications of
the normal process; resting spores may be formed, ultimately producing
zoospores; filaments may break up into individual cells, and these by copious
formation of gelatine pass into a Palmella or a Gloecystis condition.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF ULOTHRIX

1. Fresh water. 2.

2 . Filaments 11-45 u. diam. Pyrenoids several 3.

3. Mature filaments 2 5-45 u. diam. 2. U. zonata.

3. Filaments not over 20 u. diam. 4.

4. Filaments not torulose. 5.

5. Cells not over half one diam. long.

6. Cells 11 u. diameter. 1. U. oscillarina.

1. U . osillarina Kutzing, 1845. Forming soft mucilaginous masses;
filaments about 1 1 u. diam.; cells 34 - V2 diam. rarely 1 diam.; chromatophore
a broad band. Seepy lake shore, Club lake.

2. U. zonata (Web. and Mohr) Kutzing, 183 3. Forming yellowish
green masses; filaments usually 30-40 u. diam., sometimes as low as 11 u.
at the base of young filaments, rarely 45 u. in old filaments; cells cylin¬
drical or somewhat swollen, Vs -i/2 diam., long when full grown, longer
in young filaments; cell wall at first thin, growing thicker; chromatophore
a broad or narrow band at the middle of the cell, with several large pyre¬
noids. Aquarium, Tarleton State College. Plate I, figure 10.

2. Schizomeris Kutzing, 1843.

Fronds unbranched, filiform, of a single series of cells below, increas¬
ing in size above, cells dividing in all directions; reproduction by bicilate
zoospores with red stigma; asexual (?). Fresh water.

S. leihleinii Kutzing, 1843. Fronds up to 20 cm. high, rather stiff, 20-2 5
u. diam. at base, up to 150 u. above; terete below, with more or less deep
and frequent constrictions above; cells 15-A0 u. diam., roundish or angu¬
lar, with rather thick, often lamellate membrane; zoospores formed in the
upper part of the frond, freed by the breaking of the cross walls, the side
walls dissolving later; zoospores thus issuing from the summit of the frond.
In quiet fresh water. Nine mile bridge on Paluxy. Plate I, fig. 14.

3. microspora Thuret, 18 50.

Filaments simple, usually unattached and with no special basal cell; chro¬
matophore a granular sheet covering the cell wall more or less completely,
sometimes with perforations, without pyrenoids, but with scattered starch
granules. Cell walls composed of laminae, so arranged that when the fila¬
ments break up for the escape of zoospores, the pieces remain in the shape
of cylinders open at both ends, with a cross wall near the middle, the so-
called “H section.” Asexual reproduction by 2- or 4-ciliate zoospores, 1 or
2 in a cell; also by smaller 2-ciliate zoospores, formed several in a cell;

86

The Texas Journal of Science

both kinds germinating directly; whether the smaller kind may also act
as gametes is uncertain. Aplanospores and akinetes are also formed.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF MICROSPORA

1. Cells thick walled. 2.

1. Cells thin walled. 5.

2. Cells 16 u. diam. or more. 3.

3. Cells cylindrical or nearly so. 4.

4. Cells 21-25 u. diam. long. 1. M. amoena.

5. Cells 11 u. or more. 6.

6. Cells 14-17 u. diam. 2. M. floccosa.

1. M. amoena (Kutz.) Rabenhorst, 1868. Filaments long, dark or
bright green, nearly cylindrical, 21-25 u. diam.; cells 1-2 diam. long, with
walls about 2 u. thick; chromatophores dense, covering the whole cell wall,
and hiding the quite large nucleus. In rapid brooks, forming more or less
tangled, often quite long masses, April to July. Aquarium.

2. M. flocca (Vauch) Thuret, 18 50. Filaments bright or yellowish
green, cylindrical or nearly so, 14-17 (rarely 18) u. diam.; cells 1^-2 diam.
long, with thin walls; chromatophores pale green, often perforated or in
net form; akinetes 18-22 u. diam., sphaeroidal, cuboidal, or subcylindrical.
Paluxy river west of Bluffdale. Plate III, figures 8 and 9.

Family 2. praiosolaceae.

Filamentous or membranaceous; cells with star-shaped chromatophore
and one pyrenoid; asexual reproduction by segmentation of the frond, by
akinetes and by aplanospheres; sexual reproduction unknown. Fresh water
and marine.

1. prasiola (Ag.) Meneghini, 183 8.

Fronds membranaceous, monostromatic, attached by short filiform pro¬
longations, by the edge of the membrane, or by a thickened stipe, cells with
stellate chromatophore and one pyrenoid, dividing to form groups of fours,
these groups forming similar large groups, the spaces between these groups
of various orders constituting narrower or wider spaces, running in definite
directions through the frond. Asexual reproduction, first by the breaking
off of small portions of the frond, which attach themselves and grow inde¬
pendently; second by akinetes formed from individual cells assuming thick
walls; these akinetes may develop either directly into a filament or mem¬
brane, or indirectly by aplanospores, several in each akinete; third, by
aplanospores formed 4-8 in a cell, by walls in two or three directions;
sexual reproduction unknown.

1. P. crispa (Lightf.) Meneghini, 183 8. Fronds of indefinite form,
rounded, lacerate, or plicate, without stipe, attached to the substratum by
the edge of the frond or by fine fibrils; usually in dense masses; fronds
sometimes as much as 10 cm. high or wide, but usually much smaller; gen¬
erally 13-16 thick; cells squarish or rectangular, 8-13 diam., in cross sec¬
tion square or slightly higher than wide. In moist and unclean places. Water
trough at Morgan’s Mill. Plate II, figure 10.

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

87

2. schizogonium Kutzing, 1843.

Frond normally a filament of a single series of cells, but at times di¬
viding longitudinally, so as to form ribbon shaped fronds, two or a few
cells wide; cells usually shorter than their diameter, with central stellate
chromatophore and one pyrenoid, asexual reproduction by akinetes and
aplanospores.

1. S. mm ale Kutzing, 1843. Forming a soft tomentose stratum,
bright or dull green; filaments flexous, simple or rarely with short, few
celled branches; cells usually 10-14 u. diam., occasionally a little more or
less; often biseriate. On moist earth, rocks, trees, etc.

Family 3. oedogoniaceae.

Frond aquatic, in one European species terrestrial, consisting of simple
or branching filaments, of a single series of uninucleate cells; chromato-
phores generally of many longitudinal bands, with many pyrenoids; cell di¬
vision by the rupture of a circular ring, which forms the membrane of the
new cell. Asexual reproduction by multinucleate zoospores, each produced
from the entire contents of the cell, and germinating immediately; also in
some cases by akinetes. Sexual reproduction by oogonia and antheridia;
oogonia seriate, formed by transformation of vegetative cells; opening by
a lid or pore to admit the spermatozoids; when fertilized the oospore as¬
sumes a membrane; after a period of rest the oospore produces four zoo¬
spores (occasionally fewer or more), which germinate at once. Antheridia
either in the same filament with the oogonia or in separate individuals;
male plants either of about the same sized cells as the female plants or
smaller; in the latter case the male plants rise from androspores, similar to
zoospores but smaller; spermatozoids produced one or two in an antheridium,
smaller than the androspores, but of a similar appearance. Fresh water.

1. oegdogonium Link, 1820.

Fronds of single, unbranched series of cells, vegetative cells cylindri¬
cal, rarely with constrictions; basal cell with holdfast; terminal cell obtuse,
apiculate or produced into a long seta; all cells capable of division; oogonia
produced directly by division of the vegetative cell.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF OEDOGONIUM

1.

Macrandrous.

2.

1.

Nannandrous.

12.

2. Oogonia opening by a pore.

3.

3.

Spores globose.

4.

3.

Spores ellipsoid.

8.

4. Pore supramedian.

5.

5.

Membrane of oospore smooth.

6.

6. Pore almost superior.

7.

7.

Monoecious.

1 . Oe. varians

8. Oognia manifestly swollen.

9.

9.

Membrane of oospore ribbed or pitted.

10.

10. Ribs continuous and entire.

11.

The Texas Journal of Science

88

1 1 . Dioecious.

12. Dwarf males pluricellular.

1 3 . Antheridia exterior.

14. Oogonia opening by a pore.

15. Oospore ellipsoid.

16. Pore superior.

17. Membrane of oospore smooth.

18. Suffultory cells swollen.

2. Oe. boscii

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

3. Oe. borhianum

1. Oe varians Wittrock and Lund in Wittrock, 1874. Monoecious;
oogonia single, rarely 2, depressed or sub-depressed-pyriform-globose, not
filling the oogonium, membrane smoth; antheridia to 9-celled, scattered;
spermatozoids binate, division horizontal; basal cell elongate, terminal cell
obtuse.

veg. cell,

oog.,

oos.

anth. cell

12-16 u. diam.
3 5-50 u. diam.
31-45 u. diam.
11-15 u. diam.

3-9 diam. long
3 5-50 u. long
3 0-41 u. long

5-7 u. long

Club lake, Stephenville.

2. Oe. Boscii (LeCl.) A. Braun, 1 8 5 5. Dioecious; oogonia single (very
rarely double) oblong ellipsoid, pore superior; oospore ellipsoid, not nearly
filling the oogonium; marked as in Oe. paludcsum; male plant somewhat
more slender than the female.

veg. cell, female,
veg. cell, male,
oog.
oos.

anth. cell

Pond, Chandler farm.

14-23 u. diam.
13-18 u. diam.
39-51 u. diam.
3 6-43 u. diam.
13-14 u. diam.

3- 6 diam. long

4- 6 diam. long
75-110 u. long
56-70 u. long

6-16 u. long

3. Oe. borhianum (LeCl.) Wittrock, 1870. Dioecious, nannandrous,
gynandrosporous or idionandrosporous; oogonia single or rarely two or three,
oboviform or quadrangular-ellipsoid, not quite filling the oogonium, mem¬
brane smooth; suffultory cell swollen; androsporangia 1-7 celled, in the
under part of the filament, often superepyginous; basal cell elongate; ter¬
minal cell, which may be an oogonium, short apiculate or obtuse, or some¬
times produced in a long hyaline seta; dwarf males slightly curved, on
suffultory cell; antheridium exterior, 1-2 celled.

veg. cell,
suf. cell
oog.
oos.

Andr. cell
nan. stipe
anth. cell

Thurber lake.

15- 23 u. diam.,
31-38 u. diam.
40-50 u. diam.

3 5-46 u. diam.

16- 19 u. diam.
12-15 u. diam.

7-10 u. diam.

3-6 diam. long
1%-2V2 diam. long
5 5-90 u. long
48-60 u. long
15-23 u. long
37-45 u. long
11-15 u. long

2. Bulbochaete Agardh, 1817.

Filaments branching; vegetative cells increasing in size to upper end;
basal cell often lobed, attached to substratum; terminal cell of each fila¬
ment and branch produced into a long hyaline seta with a bulbous base;

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

89

plant increasing mostly by division of cell (basal) of the principal filament
or of a branch; oogonia arising by a double division of a vegetative cell.

1. B. mirabilh Wittrock, 1870.

Monoecious; oogonia ellipsoid, or oblong ellipsoid, patent or more rare¬
ly erect, below terminal seta or vegetative cells; antheridia 1-4 celled, erect
or patent, subepyginous or scattered.

zeg. cell 15-20 u. diam. 1-1 % diam. long

oog. 26-33 u. diam. 46-5 8 u. long

anth. cell 9-12 u. diam. 6-9 u. long

Nine mile bridge on Paluxy river east of Stephenville. Plate II, figure 12.
Family 4. chaetophoraceae

Fronds filamentous, except in a few doubtful forms, usually much
branched, sometimes united into disk-like expansions; cells uninucleate,
with band- or disk-shaped chromatophores, often somewhat divided or
with projections; with one, rarely more pyrenoids; hairs almost always
present, but varying in character; asexual reproduction by 4-ciliate, in
some cases biciliate zoospores, by aplanospores, akinetes and with special
Palmella and Schizomeris stages in many genera; sexual reproduction in
many genera by gametes similar to the zoospores.

KEY TO GENERA OF CHAETOPHORACEAE

1. Fronds erect with differentiated base and aspect. 2.

1. Fronds creeping or expanded, no differentiated base and apex. 5.

2. Fronds more than 1 mm. high, tips generally acute or setiferous. 3.

3. Filaments united into gelatinous thalli of definite form.

2. CHAETOPHORA.

3. Filaments practically free. 4.

4. Fasciculated ramuli different in character from stem.

3. DRAPARNARLDIA.

4. Stem, branches and ramuli little differentiated. 4. stxgeoclonium.

5. No dense layer of vertical filaments distinct from the basal layer. 6.

6. Filaments not united. 7.

7. Cells solitary. 1. diplochaete.

In addition to the genera in the foregoing key, there are a few others
which may be reduced to rudimentary forms belonging to this family; the
cells have the same structure, some species at least produce zoospores and
aplanospores, and all have regular vegetative cell division; there seems to
be no better place for them.

Cells never stalked.

2. Cells dividing and soon separating,

forming

6.

small irregular

masses or short filaments. 5. pleurococcus.

2. Cell wall persisting and enclosing walls of later generation. 3.

Division in two or three directions. 4.

4. No opaque bands. 6.

Families with no general envelope. 6. gleocystis.

90

The Texas Journal of Science

1. diplochaete Collins, 1901.

Cells solitary or a few united into a gelatinous, sub-filamentous series,
globose, flattened, ellipsoid or ovoid, furnished with two or more long,
simple, sheathless setae; chromatophore single, parietal (with pyrenoid?) .
Reproduction unknown.

D. solitaria Collins, 1901. Epiphytic, cells 25-30 u. diam. with walls
5-8 u. thick, little or not at all lamellose; setae two, arising from the
lower half of the cell, usually opposite, straight, tapering, 4-6 u. thick at
base. Aquarium, Tarleton State College. Plate I, figure 13.

2. chaetophora Schrank, 1813.

Filaments arising from a palmelloid base, and united by a firm gelatin¬
ous substance into thalli or a definite form; filaments repeatedly branched,
of about the same diameter throughout, ramuli often in fascicles, frequently
terminating in long setae. Chromatophore a parietal band with one or more
pyrenoids. Asexual reproduction by biciliate zoospores, formed in the cells
of the ramuli; akinetes from any cells.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CHAETOPHORA

1. Thalli elongate, lobed and branching.

1. Thalli globose or tuberose.

2. Branching loose and spreading.

2. Branches erect.

3. Branches not fascicled at the summit.

3 . C. incrassata

2.

1 . C. elegans
3.

2. C. attenuata.

1. C. elegans (Roth) Agardh, 1812. Thalli globose or often tuber-
culose, up to 1 cm. diam., light green rather soft; filaments radiating from
the centre, di-tri-chotomously branched and fascicled above; branches loose
and spreading, except sometimes at the tips; ramuli short-pointed or seti-
ferous; cells in main filaments 6-11, usually 8 u. diam., 3-10 diam. long, in
ramuli 5-7 u. diam., 1-4 diam. long. Thurber lake.

2. C. attenuata Hazen, 1902. Thalli globose or nearly so, not con¬
fluent, 2-5 mm. diam., bright green, dense and firm; filaments dichota-
mously branched, very erect and nearly parallel, not fasciculate; ramuli
acute or setiferous; cells of main filaments 5-5.5 u. diam., 5-10 diam. long;
of the ramuli about 4 u., rather longer in proportion; branch-bearing cells
often broadened and forked at the top; descending rhizoids abundant in the
lower part of the frond. Pond, Chandler farm.

3. C. incrassata (Huds.) Hazen, 1902. Thalli irregularly extended,
lobed lacinate, or branched, main filaments elongate, closely packed in
skeins or strands, with alternate or second branches bearing densely fascicled,
usually setiferous ramuli; cells of main filaments 8-16 u. diam., 2-6 diam.
long, cylindrical or inflated; ramuli often curved, often torulose, 6-11 u.
diam., cells 1-2 diam. long, generally distributed. Little Paluxy (creek) west
of Bluffdale.

3. draparnarldia Bory, 1808.

Filaments united by a soft gelatinous coating, not forming a thallus
of definite form; main filaments attached by basal rhizoids, more or less

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

91

branched, stout, bearing dense lateral fascicles of ramuli, much smaller
than the main filaments, often setiferous. Chromatophores in the stem and
main branches, a parietal band, sometimes perforated, with numerous pyre-
noids; in the cells of the ramuli, a layer covering the wall, with few pyre-
noids. Asexual reproduction only from the cells of the ramuli, by 4-ciliate
zoospores with red stigma, germinating immediately; also by akinetes and
aplanospores ; sexual reproduction by conjugation of 4-ciliate gametes,
which, however, may germinate without copulation.

D. glomerata (Vauch.) Agardh, 1812. Tufts usually dense, up to 8
cm. long; filaments much branched, branches spreading or horizontal, soli¬
tary or opposite, moniloform, bearing very numerous scattered, opposite
or whorled fascicles of ramuli; fascicles mostly set at right angles to the
stem and sessile, broadly orbicular to elliptical, rachis indistinct, ramuli
spreading, crowded, subulate, often longsetiferous; cells of the main
branches much swollen, 50-90 or even 12 5 u. diam., V2-2 diam, long;
chromatophores here not over half as broad as the length of the cell, but
proportionally broader in the smaller branches; ramuli 6-9 u. diam. Paluxy
river nine miles east of Stephenville. Plate III, figures 2 and 3.

4. stigeoclonium Kutzing, 1843.

Fronds mucilaginous, composed of a branching of filament, without
much distinction in character between main filaments and branches; ter¬
minal cells pointed or prolonged into a seta; chromatophore prolonged into
a parietal band, filling the smaller cells, zonate in the larger. Asexual repro¬
duction by 4-ciliate zoospores with a red stigma; also by akinetes which
produce 2 ciliate zoospores, by aplanospores. and also by a palmella stage.
Sexual reproduction by conjugation of 2 -ciliate gametes with a red stigma.

S. lubricum (Dillw.) Kutzing, 1845. Tufts up to 30 cm. long, dark
green, filaments much branched, the branching principally of the opposite
type, but often several pairs, single branches or whorls arising from ad¬
jacent cells, these cells being subglobose and smaller than other cells in the
same ramuli; ramuli, abundant; opposite, scattered, or near the ends of the
branches in more or less dense fasscicles; smaller than the branches from
which they arise, but only slightly if at all tapering; usually ending in a
small point, but sometimes setiferous; lower cells somewhat swollen, 14-17
u. diam, 2/3-2 diam. long, rarely more, with broad, zonate chromatophore;
ramuli 6-7 u. diam., cells about as long as broad. Aquarium, Tarleton State
College.

5. pleurococcus Meneghini, 1842.

Cells rounded or angular by mutual pressure, dividing in all three di¬
rections, remaining attached in irregular masses up to 32 cells or even more;
chromatophores in the form of small grams or united to a disk, with or
without a pyrenoid; zoospores, aplanospores, and zoogametes have been
reported.

P. vulgaris Meneghini, 1842. Cells 4-6 u. diam., singly spherical but
becoming angular when in contact, often two to many cells continuing
attached. On wood, stone, and brick, in moist or shaded places. Broadly
scattered.

92

The Texas Journal of Science

6. gloiococcus A. Braun, 1851.

Cells globose, enclosed in greater or less number, in an ample, globular,
transparent, gelatinous mass; with bell-shaped chromatophore and one
pyrenoid. Asexual reproduction by division of a cell into four daughter
cells, by the formation of aplanospores, and by the formation of biciliate
zoospores, of two sizes.

G. mucosus A. Braun, 1851. Cells 6-10 u. diam., colonies 50-1200 u.,
perfectly spherical and transparent. Common in plankton in fresh water.
Aquarium, Tarleton College.

Family 5. coleoceiaetaceae

Frond consisting of dichotomously branched, monosiphonous filaments;
all prostrate on the substratum, or with erect branches, branches distinct,
or laterally united to form a disk, or a pulvinate mass; growth by division
of terminal cells only; cells uninucleate, with a parietal chromatophore,
covering nearly all of the cell wall, and one pyrenoid, often producing
slender, sheathed setae; asexual reproduction by biciliate zoospores; sexual
reproduction by oogonia and antheridia, sometimes produced in one indi¬
vidual, sometimes on two.

coleochaete Brebisson, 1844.

The genus represents the highest type of fructification among the
green algae, considerable likeness to some of the mosses. The fronds form
bright green disks on fresh water plants or other submerged objects.

1. Forming monostromatic expansions. 2.

2. Filaments more or less distinctly radiate. 3.

3. Filaments laterally united. 4.

4. Disk somewhat irregular in outline; cell usually

25 u. or more. 1. C. scutata.

1. C. scutata Brebisson, 1844. Dioecious; frond orbicular subparen-
chymatous, monostromatic, composed of laterally united, branching fila¬
ments, radiating from a centre; cells quadrangular, 25-45 u. diam., 1-3 diam.
long; oogonia subglobose, naked below, corticated above, 140-160x120 u.;
antheridia produced four from the division of a vegetative cell. Rock in
edge of pond.

Family 6. herposteiraceae

Vegetative characters and asexual reproduction as in the Chaetophora-
ceae; sexual reproduction by antheridia and oogonia transformed from vege¬
tative cells; oogonia spherical, large, with four cilia, which disappear before
fertilization by the smaller, pyriform, 4-ciliate spermatozoids. Only one
genus.

herposteiron Nageli in Kutzing, 1849.

Frond microscopic, epiphytic, composed of simple or irregularly
branched filaments; cells bearing on the upper surface long, hyaline, inarticu¬
late setae, with bulbous base, but no sheath; chromatophore parietal, with
one or more pyrenoids. Asexual reproduction by 4-ciliate zoospores with

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

93

red stigma, 1-4 in a cell; sexual reproduction by the union of a sperma-
tozoid and an oospore, both 4-ciliate.

1. H. confervicola Nageli in Kutzing, 1849. Creeping on fresh
water algae, filaments irregularly torulose ; cells subglobose to nearly cylin¬
drical; setae more or less frequent, about 3-4 u. diam. at base, very slender
above, up to 200 u. long. Lily leaf. Thurber lake.

5. SIPHONOCLADIALES

Fronds multicellular, usually more or less branched; cells multi-, very
rarely uninucleate, chromatophores net shaped, or of numerous small disks.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF SIPHONOCLADIALES

1. Filaments simple or branched; sexual reproduction

isogamous; with main axis of limited growth. 2.

1. With main axis indistinct; all axes of unlimited growth. 3.

2. Axis bearing whorls of branches of limited

growth and of form different from the axis. 2. dasycladaceae.
2. Zoospores and gametes produced in little changed

vegetative cells. 1. cladophoraceae.

Family 1. cladophoraceae

Fronds of simple or branching monosiphonous filaments; free or more
or less united laterally; cells multirarely uninucleate, with chromatophore
net formed, o r broken into many small portions, with many pyrenoids;
asexual reproduction by 4-ciliate zoospores (sometimes biciliate?) and by
akinetes; sexual reproduction by biciliate gametes; zoospores and gametes
formed in little changed vegetative cells. Marine and fresh water.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF CLADOPHORACEAE

1. Filaments branched. 2.

2. Branches free, not united to form a membrane or tissue. 3.

3. Branches of successive orders but not of the same character. 4.

4. Partitions regularly at the bases of the branches. 3.

5. Akinetes formed of swollen intercalary or terminal cells;

zoospores unknown. 2. pithophora.

5. Akinetes unusual, little differentiated; propagation by zoospores. No
specialized hooks or rhizoidal branches; cell division

chiefly terminal. 1. cladophora.

1. cladophora Kutzing, 1843.

Fronds composed of filaments of a single series of cells, the filaments
branching, usually abundantly; branching lateral, but often coming to ap¬
pear dichotamous in consequence of the pushing aside of the original fila¬
ment by the branch; growth chiefly by division of the apical cell, subse¬
quent division of the cells being rather, exceptional; branches all of the
same type; cells multinucleate, the chromatophore either covering the cell
wall, or forming a network on it, or in the form of numerous small disks;
pyrenoids several in a cell; asexual reproduction by 4-ciliate zoospores;
sexual reproduction by bi-ciliate gametes, uniting and germinating inde¬
pendently; also germinating without copulation.

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The Texas Journal of Science

KEY TO THE FRESH WATER SPECIES OF CLADOPHORA

1. Fronds permanently attached.

2. Ramuli in dense clusters.

3. Ramuli straight or slightly curved.

4. Lower branches mostly dichotamous; branches connate

for some distance. 2. C. canalicularis

4. Branches mostly alternate, branches not connate. 1. C. glomerata

1. C. glomerata (L) Kutzing, 1845. Fronds up to 30 cm. high, more
orlessdensely branched below, branches more and more frequent towards the
top, at last forming dense fascicles; filaments cylindrical, 75-100 u. diam.
below, 6-7 diam. long; 3 5-50 u. diam. in the ramuli, 3-6 diam long;
ramuli not tapering, tips rounded, fruiting cells terminal or subterminal.
Stream, Burleson farm.

2. C. canalicularis (Roth) Kutzing, 1845. Fronds 5-10 cm. high,
much branched, branching mostly di-trichotomous, branches connate at
base; ramuli often fasciculate; main filaments 80-120 u. diam., cells 5-8
diam. long; cells in branches shorter, in ramuli I-IV2 diam. long, 30-50 u.
diam., somewhat swollen; cell membrane usually thick. Paluxy river, east of
Bluffdale,

2. pithophora Wittrock, 1877.

Fronds filamentous, monosiphonous, branching, branches issuing from
below the top of the cells; cells cylindrical or swollen, multinucleate, with
net like chromatophore and many pyrenoids; asexual reproduction by akin-
etes, terminal or intercalary in the filaments, formed by the division of
the vegetative cell, the upper half forming the akinete, the lower half re¬
maining usually sterile; the germinating akinete dividing into two parts, of
which one develops a short rhizoid, the other the initial cauloid filament
of the future plant.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PITHOPHORA

1. Intercalary akinetes all of about the same shape.
1. Intercalary akinetes varying in the same plant;
cylindrical, cask-shaped, obvoid or irregular.

2. Main filament less than 100 u. diam. Special
helicoidal cells wanting or rare.

3. Main filament rarely reaching 100 u. diam.

2.

2.

2. P. oedogonia
1 . P. varia

1. P. varia Wille. Filaments 75-105 u., primary and secondary
branches about the same; terminal cells 43-70 u., rarely ending in heli-
coids; akinetes 1-3, seriate, with walls, especially the end wall, quite thick,
terminal and intercalary, arising in main stem or in branches of any order;
terminal akinetes ovoid, with pointed tip, 1 50-210x64-69 u.; intercalary
70-240x60-1 12 u.; ovoid, cylindrical or irregular. Pond, Chandler farm.
Plate I, figure 4.

2. P. oedogonia (Mont) Wittrock, 1877. Main filaments about 70 u.
diam., branches of the three orders scattered or opposite; branches occas¬
ionally issuing from the short cell below the akinete; akines solitary, rarely
in twos, intercalary or terminal; intercalary akinetes cask-shaped about
230-1 15 u.; terminal akinetes cask shaped, above shortly acuminate, with
rounded apex, about 215-95 u. Club lake, Stephenville.

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

95

Family 2. dasycladaceae

Fronds consisting of a long, inarticulate axillary cell, attached by rhi-
zoids below, and of whorls of usually pluricellular, simple or branching
ramuli of limited growth; in fertile ramuli are produced either gametes,

or aplanospores which when freed produce gametes.

key to the genera of dasycladaceae

I. Frond not calcified. 2.

2. Sporangia lateral, whorls rather distant. 1. bathophora.

1. Bathopora J. G. Agardh, 18 54.

Vegetative fronds as in Dasycladus; sporangia chiefly lateral, produc¬
ing aplanospores.

B. oersted i J. G. Agardh, 1845. Fronds up to 10 cm. high, rather soft
and flaccid, 10-13 mm. diam.; whorls distinct, not very close; sporangia
ellipsoid to pyriform-subclavate, 500-1000x32 5-45 0 u., lateral or occasion¬
ally terminal on branches of the first to the fourth orders; aplanospores
ellipsoid, 50-70 u. diam., 1 V2 times as long, in a single layer on the inner
surface of the sporangium. Little Paluxy (creek) east of Stephenville. Plate

II, figure 1 1.

6. siphonales

Fronds filiform, usually much branched or developing into various
forms, continuous without disepiments in this vegetative condition, multi-
nucleate, with many lens or disk-shaped chroma tophores.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF SIPHONALES

1. Sexual reproduction by non-motile oospores and motile

spermatozoids. 1 . vaucheriaceae.

Family 1 . vaucheriaceae

Fronds filamentous, cylindrical or with frequent constrictions, with
lateral or dichotomous branching; chromatophores small disks, without pyre-
noids; asexual reproduction by large, multiciliate zoospores; also by aplano¬
spores and akinetes; sexual reproduction by oogonia and antheridia.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF VAUCHERIACEAE

I. Filaments cylindrical. 1. vaucheria

1. Filaments with frequent constrictions. 2. dichtomosiphon

vaucheria DeCandole, 1805.

Fronds filamentous, inarticulate, branches arising laterally but often
assuming a dichotomous appearance, forming more or less dense tufted or
felty masses, usually attached by colorless rhizoids; numerous small chroma¬
tophores without pyrenoids, and with minute nuclei. Asexual reproduction
by very large zoospores, covered with cilia, with small nucleus correspond¬
ing to each pair of cilia; produced in somewhat clavate end of branches,
arising similarly to zoospores, but without cilia, germinating only after a
longer or shorter period of rest; also in some species by akinetes, the fila¬
ment breaking up into shorter portions, each with a thick wall. Sexual re-

96

The Texas Journal of Science

production by oogonia and antheridia, of quite variable shape and position;
usually on the same filament, but in some species on distinct individuals;
oogonia sessile or pedicellate, partitioned off from the frond and producing
a large globose, or subglobose uninucleate oospore; antheridium similarly
located and partitioned off from the frond, producing many biciliate
spermatozoids, with cilia pointing in opposing directions; when the oospore
is formed, the oogonium dissolves, and the spermatozoids enter, fertilizing
the oospore, which germinates after a resting period.

A widely distributed genus of unattractive appearing plants, but inter¬
esting by their elaborate and varied fructification. Sterile plants are quite
indeterminable, and fruit is not always easy to find; and in dried material
or herbarium specimens the fruit is not in as good condition for study as
in most other algae.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF VAUCHERIA

1.

3.

3.

5.

7.

?

Antheridia not separated from the frond by an empty cell. 2.

2. Antheridia hooked or circinate. 3.

Oogonia sessile on the main filament or very shortly stipitate.

4.

Oogonia on a branch or distinct pedicel, antheridium
terminal.

4. Oogonia oblique.

Filaments 50-8 5 u. diam.

6. Oogonia sessile on the branch or nearly so.

6. Oogonia stipitate usually 2-6.

Pedicels of oogonia and antheridia arising near the
end of the branch.

8. Branch short; anther usually surpassing the oogonia.

6.

5.

1 . V. sessilis
2. V. terrestris.

7.

8.

3. V. germiiiata.

8. Branch long; anther not surpassing the oogonia. 4. V. Ion gi pcs.

1. V. sessilis (Vauch) DeCandole, 1805. Filaments 50-8 5 u. diam.;
oogonia usually two, sometimes single, sessile, ovoid, or oblong-ovoid, 70-8 5
x70-l 00 u., more or less oblique, with short beak; antheridium between the
oogonia or beside the single oogonium on a short pedicel, straight, hooked
or circinate; ripe oospore dark spotted with triple membrane, filling the
oogonium; zoosporangia ovoid-clavate, terminal on a branch which is how¬
ever sometimes so short that the sporangium appears sessile; zoospores
100-145x1 10-125 u., with cilia evenly distributed. Paluxy at Bluffdale.

2. V. terrestris (Vauch) DeCandole, 1805. Filaments 50-80 u. diam.;
oogonia usually solitary, 8 5-12 5x60-100 u., lateral on a short branch, on
the summit of which is the curved or circinate antheridium, about 20 u.
diam.; oospore to plano-convex, with quadruple membrane and numerous
brownish spots; the membrane of the oogonium remaining attached to the
oospore and falling with it, gelatinizing and ultimately disappearing. Though
the antheridium is really terminal, it is often pushed aside by the oogonium,
and appears to be lateral, below the oogonium. On moist ground or sub¬
merged. Drain from stock trough supplied with running water. Bluff*dale.

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

97

3. V. germinata (Vauch) DeCandole, 1805. Filaments 50-100 u.
diam.; oogonia 2, 70-90 u., ellipsoid-hemispherical to convex-concave, short¬
ly stipulate near the end of a short branch; the antheridium between them,
cylindrical, hooked or circinate; ripe oospore brown spotted with triple
membrane, filling the oogonium; aplanosporangia either on the same frond
as the oogonia or on separate individuals, aplanospores 120-200x120-190 u.,
formed in ovoid sporangia usually terminating in short, lateral branches,
freed by the dissolution of the membrane; akinetes formed by the breaking
up of portions of the filaments into short thick walled cells whose develop¬
ment varies considerably, according to circumstances. Common in quiet
slowly running water. Seepy spot on bank of Bosque.

4. V. longipes Collins, 1907. Filaments 80-90 u. diam., oogonia and
antheridia borne at the end of a branch one to several mm. long, 30-40 u.
diam.; antheridia terminal, cylindrical or slightly tapering, hooked or
circinate; oogonia 70-85x3 5-40 u., ovoid, slightly oblique, 2-4 on a pedicel
20-30 u. diam., 100-150 u. long, arising a little below the antheridium,
and usually surpassing it. In brooks and pools. Rock Falls. Plate II, figure 14.

2. Dichotomosiphon Ernst, 1902.

Fronds filamentous, inarticulate, multinucleate, with disk shaped chro-
matophores without pyrenoid; filaments di-polychotomous, attached below
by slender, colorless rhizoids; branches constricted at base to about half
their diameter; similar constrictions formed at intervals between the
branchings; membrane thickened at the constrictions; often becoming
brown; starch accumulations in large quantities throughout the frond.
Sexual reproduction by terminal oogonia and antheridia; oospore globose,
with triple membrane, germinating after a resting period. Asexual repro¬
duction by akinetes, in the form of tubular swellings at the end of the
branches, or oftener on special lateral branches, germinating after a rest¬
ing period.

The genus differs from Vaucheria by the true dichotamous branching,
the peculiar asexual reproduction, the corymbose arrangement of the sexual
organs, the presence of starch in large quantity, and the tendency to
articulation shown by the constriction.

D. tuberosus (A. Braun) Ernst 1902. Fronds 2-10 cm. long, 40-110 u.
diam., usually 70-95 u.; akinetes straight and elongate or clavate and
curved, 0.5-5 mm. long, 200-400 u. diam.; antheridium and oogonium
corymbosely arranged at the ends of ultimate divisions; antheridia cylin¬
drical and clavate, more or less curved, 130-170x3 5-50 u.; oogonia globose,
dark green, 2 5 0-280 u. diam. Little Paluxy, west of Bluffdale. Plate II,
figures 7 and 8.

Chara is abundant in the county. It ranged in species as is indicated
by the drawings, but no attempt has been made to classify it.

The writer wishes to acknowledge the services of Miss Lena River
Lewis and others in making her collecting trips possible, and also the
thoughtful cooperation of Dr. Frederick McAllister of the University of
Texas in his useful loans of reference material and in his suggestions with
reference to this paper.

98

The Texas Journal of Science

LITERATURE CITED

Allen, Linda A. — 1924 — A study of the green algae of the Austin region.

Collins, F. S. — 1909 — The green algae of North America. Tufts College Studies 11.

- — 1912 — -The green algae of North America. Supplementary paper. Tufts College

Studies.

Cooke, M. C. — 1887 — British desmids.

WoIIe, F. — 1892 — The fresh water algae of the United States.

Hazen, T. E. — 1902 — Ulotricaceae and Chaetophoraceae of the United States. Memoir Torry
Bot. Club. 11.

Chlorophyceae of Erath County

99

100

The Texas Journal of Science

EXPLANATIONS AND REFERENCES

PLATE I

Fig. 1. Cosmarium logmese x 440 15.

Fig. 2 & 5. Euastrum verrucosum x 440 _ _ 13.

Fig. 3. Closterium moniliferum x 440 _ 12.

Fig. 4. Pit hop bora varia x 440 _ 68.

Fig. 6. Cosmarium coel&him x 440 _ 15.

Fig. 7. Pediastrum horyanum x 440 _ 44.

Fig. 8. Scenedesmus bijuga x 440 _ 42.

Fig. 9. Scenedesmus obliquus x 440 _ 42.

Fig. 10. Ulothrix zonata x 440 _ _ _ _ 47.

Fig. 11. Mougeota genufhiexa x 440 _ _ 28.

Fig. 12. Mougeota glenuflexa x 440 _ , _ 28.

Fig. 13. Diphlochaete scut at a x 440 _ 58.

Fig. 14. Schizomeris leibleinii x 100 _ 48.

Fig. 15. Khapidium falcatum var fusiforme x 440 _ I _ 42.

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

101

EXPLANATIONS AND REFERENCES
PLATE II

Fig. 1. Spirogyra setiformis x 440 _ 24.

Fig. 2 & 12. Bulbocheate mirabilis x 440 _ _ 5 5.

Fig. 3-6. Gonatonema ventricosum x 100 _ 29.

Fig. 7, 8. Dichto most phon tuberosa x 100 _ 75.

Fig. 9. Ophiocytium circinatum x 950 _ _ 8.

Fig. 10. Prasiola crispa x 9 50 _ 57.

Fig. 11. Bathapbora oersted i x 100 _ 70.

Fig. 13. Mougeota quadrangulata x 100 _ 28.

Fig. 14. Voucher ia longipes x ddj _ 74.

Fig. 15. Inefigiata neglect a x 100 _ ___ _ 3 6.

Fig. 16. Chlarnydomonas communis x 950 _ 31.

Fig. 17. Chlorogoniiini euchlorum x 440 _ 32.

EXPLANATIONS AND REFERENCES
PLATE III

Fig. 1. Tetraspora gelatinosa x 950 _ 36.

Fig. 2, 3. Draparnarldia glomerafa x 440 _ _ _ _ 60.

Fig. 4. Mougeota sphaerocarpa x 100 _ _ : _ _ 28.

Fig. 5. Pandorina morum x 440 _ 3 3.

Fig. 6, 7. Xygnema pectinatum x 440 _ 20.

Fig. 8, 9. Micros por a flocca x 100 _ 49.

Fig. 10. Characium ambiguum x 440 __ _ 34.

Fig. 11. Characium naegslii x 440 _ 39.

Fig. 12. Palmellococcus miniatus x 440 _ 39.

THE SUMMER RESIDENT BIRDS OF THE SIERRA VIEJA
RANGE IN SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS

Homer W. Phillips and Wilmot A. Thornton
Department of Zoology
University of Texas

INTRODUCTION

\ survey of the ecological distribution of the summer resident birds
was made in the Sierra Vieja region of Presidio County, Texas, from June
5 to July 9, 1948.

The area studied, and here termed the Sierra Vieja region, lies in the
Chihuahuan biotic province as restricted by Dice (1943). Two biotic dis¬
tricts, the Sierra Vieja district and the Rio Grande Basin district, are recog¬
nized in our area (York, 1949). Our base camp was in the Sierra
Vieja district, on the C. Espy Miller ranch about 1 1 miles west of Valen¬
tine, and most of our collectiong was done there. Four collecting trips
were made to an area in the Rio Grande Basin district, about five miles
north of Porvenir, for a total of six and a half field days.

Two life belts are recognized in the Sierra Vieja district. The Rough-
land belt includes the mesas and valleys of the mountain area. The Plains

102

The Texas Journal of Science

belt takes in the basin or Valentine Plain area. Six ecological associations
have been investigated in the Roughland belt and seven in the Plains belt
of the Sierra Vieja district. Five associations have been studied in the Rio
Grande Basin district, which is not subdivided into life belts. A full de¬
scription of the associations of the area is presented by York (1949).

Until the time of this brief survey, there had been no ornithological
work in the Sierra Vieja Mountains. The list of species which we have
recorded in this area is not to be regarded as complete for the summer
resident birds. In the Roughland belt we sighted a humming-bird, an owl,
and a hawk, which we were unable to collect or identify. In the Rio
Grande district we saw one small heron which we also did not identify.

To the east of this area, in Brewster County, the avifauna has been
studied by Van Tyne and Sutton (1937). To the north in the Guadalupe
Mountains the birds have been studied by Burleigh and Lowery (1940).

John W. Duke Jr. and other members of the field party contributed
specimens and information, and we are indebted to them for their assistance.
We wish to thank Dr. W. B. Davis of the Texas Agricultural and Mechani¬
cal College, who was most considerate in allowing us to use the college
collection of skins, and in helping us to identify doubtful species. We also
wish to express appreciation to Dr. Josselyn Van Tyne of the Museum of
Zoology, the University of Michigan, who kindly examined two specimens
of Piranga rubra cooperi. We are indebted to Mr. C. Espy Miller for his
cooperation in allowing us to collect on his ranch, and in offering sugges¬
tions for locating certain species.

To Dr. W. F. Blair, we wish to express our sincere appreciation for
his excellent advice and criticism, which made possible the publication of
this report.

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS

SIERRA VIEJA BIOTIC DISTRICT

This district, as restricted by York, (1949) covers that area of the
Sierra Vieja range from the 'Tim” eastward and the Valentine Plain. It is
divided into the Roughland and Plains life belts.

ROUGHLAND LIFE BELT

The Roughland life belt of the Sierra Vieja biotic district includes
the mesas and numerous valleys between them, which, taken together, form
the Sierra Vieja mountain range. This range of mountains runs in a north-
south direction, approximately parallel with the Davis Mountains to the
east, and constitutes all of the elevated portions covered by this survey.

Six associations have been described in this belt: the stream bed as¬
sociation, the canyon floors between the mesas from head to mouth; the
catclaw-grama association constituting the sloping sides and level areas
above the canyon floors; the grama-bluestem association, on the steeper
slopes of the canyons; the rock bluff association, restricted to the sheer
rock walls of the canyons; the lechuguilla-beargrass association, the ma¬
jority of the area of the mesa tops, and the lechuguilla-huisache associa¬
tion, which was confined to small areas of the mesa tops.

Twenty-four species of birds of the Sierra Vieja region were found by
us to be restricted to the Roughland belt (Table I).

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

03

TABLE I

RECORD OF BIRDS IN THE ROUGHLAND LIFE BELT

Numbers indicate the species by associations.

Symbol x indicates the ecological associations in which birds were seen but
not collected.

SPECIES RECORDED RECORDS IN ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS

'-H

<u

03

03

P

l S

jp

PQ

jg '3

PQ

vi

U two

o

£

03

£

i &

O rs

n! p

.a

3 0

o

P*

U

O

O

on

<u

hJ PQ

£►3

ROUGHLAND BELT SPECIES

Columba fasciata

X

Zenaidura macroura

X

X

Melopelia asiatica

X

X

Coccyzus americanus

1

Phalaenoptilus nuttalli

1

Aeronautes saxatalis

X

Archilochus alexandri

2

Dryobates scalaris

7

X

Sayornis nigricans

3

Sayornis saya

2

Tachycineta thalassina

1

Petrochelidon albifrons

2

1

X

Baeolophus atricristatus

2

Auriparus flaviceps

2

3

Catherpes mexicanus

4

Salpinctes obsoletus

1

2

Phainopepla nitens

1

Vireo belli

4

Vireo vicinior .

2

1

Molothrus ater

3

2

X

Guiraca caerulea

1

Passerina amoena

3

Passerina versicolor

1

Spinus psaltria

3

104

The Texas Journal of Science

table I (continued)

SPECIES RECORDED

RECORDS IN ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS

Stream Bed

Catclaw-Grama

Rock Bluff

Grama-Blue

stem

Lpchuguilla-

Beargrass

Huisache-

Lechuguilla

WIDE RANGING SPECIES

Cathartes aura

X

X

1

X

X

X

Buteo jamaicensis

X

X

X

X

X

X

Aquila chrysaetos

X

Callipepla squamata

X

Columba fasciata

X

Bubo virginianus

X

X

1

X

X

Chordeiles minor

1

Chordeiles acutipennis

5

Myiarchus cinerascens

5

3

X

X

X

Corvus cryptoleucus

X

Heleodytes brunneicapillus

1

Mimus polyglottos

1

1

Icterus parisorum

1

1

X

Piranga rubra

4

Carpodacus mexicanus

5

1

X

X

X

Pipilo fuscus

2

1

1

Aimophila ruficeps

4

2

1

X

Amphispiza bilineata

X

1

X

1

X

Stream Bed Association . Nine species were found to be restricted to
this major association of the Roughland belt. Protected, for the most part,
by the sheer rock walls on either side, these canyons contained the only
free water supply in the belt.

The most characteristic birds in this association were the woodpecker
(Dryobates scalaris) and the tanager (Piranga rubra).

Twenty-eight of the 42 species recorded from the Roughland belt
were collected or observed in this association.

Cat elate -Grama Association. We found none of the 22 species recorded
in this association to be solely restricted to it. Columba fasciata was observed
here on only one occasion. The flycatcher (Myiar clous cinerascens) was one
of the very common species.

Rock Bluff Association. In this association forming the sheer rock
walls of the canyons, we found two species which were evidently restricted,
the wren (Gather pes mexicanus ) and the phoebe ( Sayornis nigricans) .

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

105

Grama -Blues tern Association . This association occurred only on the
steep slopes along the sides of the canyons. We observed seven different
species in this association, no species being collected.

Leckuguilla-Rear grass Association . There were no species of birds found
to be restricted to this association. Two nesting sites of the poorwill (Pba-
laenoptilus nut t alii) were discovered in this area.

Huisache-Lechuguilla Association . The desert sparrow ( Am phispiza
Inline at a) was quite common in this association, which formed a relatively
small area on the mesa top. No bird species were collected.

PLAINS LIFE BELT

The Plains belt is the second of the two life belts of the Sierra Vieja
district. This belt, in contrast to the roughland, forms a broad, wide, sandy
area, gently sloping from the alluvial fans along the base of the mountain
range out into the level center, or basin area, the Valentine Plain.

Seven associations have been studied in this belt. The tobosa-grama
association is the most extensive of these, and occurs throughout the

basin area. It is monotonously level and sandy. The mesquite-huisache-

blackbrush association occurs in the area around the Burford well, some
distance from the mountains. The creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush asso¬
ciation is found along the lower parts of the alluvial fans in the area
around the Roosevelt well. It is limited toward the upper parts of the
alluvial fans by the catclaw-tobosa association. The soil is rocky, a typi¬
cal edaphic feature for all of the fans in this area. The lower areas of this

association, end rather abruptly where they meet the tobosa-grama asso¬

ciation. The catclaw-tobosa association occurs along most of the upper
areas of the alluvial fans right up to the base of the Sierra Vieja range, and
takes in all of this rocky area with the exception of the areas around the
mouths of some canyons. Here another association has been described, the
catclaw-cedar association. This latter association, made up predominantly
of scrub cedar, is restricted to areas around the canyon mouths. The yucca-
blackbmsh-grama association is located near the center of the basin, and is
distinguished from the surrounding area by the predominance of yuccas.
The blackbrush-creosote-bush association has been described in several lo¬
calities of the plains. The area around West well near West well canyon is
predominantly blackbrush and creosote-bush; another area of this type oc¬
curs near the center of the basin and is on a slight rise above the tobosa-
grama association which surrounds it.

Thirteen species of birds in the Sierra Vieja region were found by us
to be restricted to the Plains belt (Table II).

106

The Texas Journal of Science

table II

RECORD OF BIRDS IN THE PLAINS LIFE BELT

Numbers indicate the species by associations.

Symbol x indicates the ecological associations in which birds were seen but
not collected.

SPECIES RECORDED

RECORDS IN ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS

Tabosa-Grama

Mesquite-

Huisache-

Blackbrush

Creosote-Bush

Catclaw-black-

brush

Catclaw-Tabosa

Catclaw-Cedar

Yucca-Black-

brush-Grama

Blackbrush-

Creosote-Bush

PLAINS BELT SPECIES

Buteo swainsoni

X

X

X

X

X

1

X

Oxyechus vociferus

2

Numenius americanus

1

Geococcvx californianus

1

1

Speotyto cunicularia

X

Muscivora forficata

1

Otocoris alpestris

2

X

X

X

X

X

2

Toxostoma curvirostre

2

Lanius ludovicianus

1

X

4

X

Sturnella magna

2

2

Cassidix mexicanus

X

Pyrrhuloxia sinuata

1

2

Aimophila cassini

2

WIDE RANGING SPECIES

Cathartes aura

X

X

X

1

X

X

X

Buteo jamaicensis

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Callipepla squamata

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Bubo virginianus

X

1

X

X

X

X

X

Chordeiles minor

1

2

Chordeiles acutipennis

1

K

Myiarchus cinerascens

X

X

X

X

Corvus cryptoleucus

2

Heleodytes brunneicapillus

1

Mimus polyglottos

X

Icterus parisorum

X

2

X

Piranga rubra

1

Carpodacus mexicanus

1

1

1

X

1

X

Piplo fuscus

1

1

Aimophila ruficeps

X

Amphispiza bilineata

1

1

X

X

X

X

X

ROUGHLAND SPECIES

Columba fasciata

1

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

107

■ Tobosa-Grama Association . Three species were found to be restricted
to this area, the killdeer (Oxyechus vociferus) the curlew (Nuinenms a mer¬
ic amis ) and the burrowing owl (S peotyto cunicularia ) .

The burrowing owl was restricted to prairie dog towns, which we found
only in this association. The long-billed curlew cannot be definitely said to
be limited to this area, as only one was seen.

Mesquite -Huisache -Blackbrush Association. Rather dense stands of mes-
quite and huisache formed an ideal haunt for many bird species in this asso¬
ciation including the horned owl ( Bubo vir ginianus ) . The thrasher (Toxo-
stoma curvirostre ) and the sparrow ( Aimophila cassini ) were apparently
limited to this association.

Creosote-Bush-Catclaw-Blackbrush Association. The flycatcher (Myiar-
chus cinerascens ) and the cowbird (Molothrus ater) were common birds of
this area, although no species were found to be restricted here.

Cat claw- -Tobosa Association. No species were found to be restricted
solely to this association although extensive observation and collecting was
not carried on in this area.

Cat claw -Cedar Association. This association, made up predominately
of cedar, was restricted to areas around the canyon mouths. The Associa¬
tion formed what may be termed an intermediate zone between the Rough-
land and the Plains belts. All of the species found in this association ranged
in both the Plains and Roughland belts with the exception of the horned
lark ( Otocoris alpestris) which was limited to the Plains belt. There was a
scarcity of birds in this area.

Y ucca-Blackbrush-Grama Association. The scissor- tailed flycatcher
(Mus civ or a forficata) was seen only in this association. Although this species
was in no way abundant, it is unlikely that it was restricted to this associa¬
tion.

Blackbrush -Creosote -Bush Association . The horned lark ( Otocoris alpes¬
tris) and the desert sparrow ( Am p bis piza bilineata ) were common birds in
this association. No species was found to be limited here.

RIO GRANDE BASIN BIOTIC DISTRICT

This district lies to the west of the Sierra Vieja range, and was in past
geologic history an extensive basin. It differs from the Sierra Vieja district
in that it has a lower altitude and a permanent body of water, the Rio
Grande. In accordance with these differences, the vegetation is of a differ¬
ent type also. There is very little tobosa or grama grass in the area, but thin
growths of grama grass can be found on the hills of the ocotillo-creosote-
bush association. The predominant types of vegetation are thick growths of
mesquite and salt cedar along the river banks, and ocotillo and creosote-
bushes on the hills and flats further from the river.

Six associations were studied in this area. The mesquite-salt cedar asso¬
ciation is found on both sides of the Rio Grande, and is a region of excep¬
tionally dense vegetation. The stream bed association, the stream bed itself,
was not described by York (1949). Several species of birds were seen
nowhere else, so a stream bed association is here recognized. The old field

108

The Texas Journal of Science

association was a large cleared area adjacent to the mesquite-salt cedar asso¬
ciation; this area was only partly cultivated at the time of this survey. The
cottonwood association was also near the river, and consisted chiefly of
cottonwood trees, in sharp contrast to the mesquite-salt cedar association
which surrounded it. The ocotillo-crecsote-bush association was an area of
scanty vegetation on the low rocky hills in the basin. The catclaw-creosote-
bush association occupies the sandy flats between the hills some distance
from the river.

Eight of the 34 species found in the Rio Grande Basin Biotic District
were not found in the Sierra Vieja Biotic District (Table III).

Mesquite-Salt Cedar Association. This association contained more bird
life than any other association in this district. Of the 34 species found in
the district 31 were seen or collected in the mesquite-salt cedar, and 14
species were found to be restricted here. The grackle (Cassidix mexicanus)
although observed only in this association is in all probability not limited to
it in this area. The long-tailed chat (Icteria virens), the mocking bird
(M imus polyglottos) and the white-winged dove (Melopelia asiatica), were
common birds in this association.

Stream Bed Association. A small heron, unidentified, was observed on
a sand bar in the river as was a killdeer ( Oxyechus voci ferns ) . These birds
were apparently limited to this association, which contained the only avail¬
able water. Night hawks were commonly seen over the stream bed.

Old Field Association. This association had a very abundant bird popu¬
lation, but apparently no species was restricted to it. The Texas night-hawk
(Chordeiles acutipennis) the mocking bird (Mimum polyglottos) , the silky
flycatcher (Phainopepla nitens) and the blue grosbeak (Gtiiraca caerulea)
were partciularly numerous here.

Cottonwood Association. The white-winged dove (Melopelia asiatica ),
the house-finch ( Carpodacus mexicanus ) and Harris’s hawk (Varabuteo
unicinctus ), were common here, and several nests of Harris’s hawk were
found on the cottonwood trees.

Ocotillo-Creosote-Bush Association. Several nests of the white-necked
raven (Corvus cryptoleucus) were located on rock ledges in this association.
The tanger (Piranga rubra) was another characteristic bird of this hilly
area.

Cat claw -Creosote-Bush Association. In this flat, sandy area the mocking
bird (M imus polyglottos) and the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) were
common. We found no species to be restricted here.

ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES

Sixty-three species of birds have been recorded from the Sierra Vieja
region, including the Rio Grande Basin district. Nine of these species are
represented by sight records. A total of 216 specimens was collected. These
specimens are now in the Texas Natural History Collection, Department of
Zoology, The University of Texas.

Where measurements have been made of the gonads of the breeding

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

109

TABLE III

RECORD OF BIRDS IN THE RIO GRANDE BASIN BIOTIC DISTRICT
Numbers indicate the species by associations.

Symbol x indicates the ecological associations in which birds were seen but
not collected.

SPECIES RECORDED RECORDS IN ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS

Mesquite-
Salt Cedar

Stream Bed

Cottonwood

Ocotillo-

Creosote-

Bush

Catclaw-

Creosote-

Bush

Old Field

Rio Grande Species not found

in

Sierra Vieja Biotic Dist.

Ardea herodias

x

1

Parabuteo unicinctus

X

X

1

X

X

X

Lophortyx gambeli

2

X

X

X

1

Tyrannus verticalis

3

Pyrocephalus rubinus

1

Icteria virens

7

Icterus spurius

1

Passerina ciris

4

Wide Ranging Species in

Both Biotic Districts.

Cathartes aura

X

X

X

X

X

X

Buteo jamaicensis

X

X

X

X

X

X

Buteo swainsoni

1

X

X

X

X

X

Oxyechus vociferus

X

Melopelia asiatica

X

X

X

X

X

X

Coccyzus americanus

X

Geococcyx californianus

1

1

X

Chordeiles acutipennis

1

2

1

Chordeiles (species)

X

Dryobates scalaris

1

Myiarchus cinerascens

3

X

Corvus cryptoleucus

X

X

X

X

X

X

Auriparus flaviceps

2

Mimus polyglottos

5

1

X

Phainopepla nitens

2

X

Vireo belli

3

Vireo vicinior

1

Icterus parisorum

1

Cassidix mexicanus

X

Molothrus ater

3

Piranga rubra

1

Pyrrhuloxia sinuata

1

Guiraca caerulea

4

X

Passerina versicolor

1

Carpodacus mexicanus

1

X

X

X

X

X

Amphispiza bilineata

1

X

X

110

The Texas Journal of Science

birds, the size of the largest testis or ovum was taken in millimeters.

The nomenclature followed is that of the American Ornithologists’
Union Check-list of North American Birds (1931), with the exception of
certain subsequent changes.

Ardea herodias treganzai Court

Treganza’s Heron (194c.)

lad. $, breeding condition (2.8 mm), 10 miles
northwest of Porvenir, stream bed association, July 2.

An individual of this species was observed on our first trip to the Rio
Grande Basin on June 14, in a cottonwood tree in the mesquite-salt cedar
association. Our specimen was taken on a subsequent trip to the river. It
was in full breeding plumage.

Cathartes aura teter Friedmann (1933)

Turkey Vulture

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff as¬
sociation, June 6; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valen¬
tine, catclaw-tobosa association, June 23.

These birds are referable to C. aura teter, although the one specimen
collected by Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) in the Chisos Mountains was
identified as C. aura aura, the Mexican form of turkey vulture.

The turkey vulture was common throughout the entire area covered
by this survey. In the Roughland belt the species roosted on the rock bluffs
on either side of the canyons. In the Rio Grande Basin district they were
observed roosting in large numbers in the trees bordering the river.

Observations by Mr. C. E. Miller Jr. seem to indicate that this species
migrates from the Sierra Vieja Mountains in October. The departure date
for the last two years was October 9.

Buteo jamaicensis subsp.

Red-tailed Hawk

Sight Record

This species was seen in the Plains and Roughland belts of the Sierra
Vieja district, and in the Rio Grande district, but no specimens were col¬
lected.

Buteo sivainsoni Bonaparte
Swainson’s Hawk (342.)

1. ad. S , breeding condition, ten miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, June 1 5 ;

1 ad. $, breeding condition (11.1 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine,
yucca-blackbrush-grama association, June 24.

This species ranged over the Plains belt and the Rio Grande Basin dis¬
trict. It was the hawk most frequently observed in the Plains belt.

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

111

On June 23, in the yucca-blackbrush-grama association a nest of this
species was found in a yucca, six feet from the ground. It contained one
white egg and one nestling which had inch-long primaries, but was other¬
wise covered with down feathers. No bones or any types of food mattd.
were found in or around the nest.

Several subsequent trips were made to this nest in an effort to collect
the parent birds. When the nest was approached the two adults would
begin to circle high above it and scream, whether or not they had been on
the nest when it was disturbed. The male was collected when the pair dived
to within 20 feet of the nest when the yucca was shaken. In an effort to
collect the female, a number one steel trap was arranged on yucca stalks
tied above the nest out of reach of the young bird, but the female never
returned.

The young bird was removed from the nest and cared for in the camp
area for the remainder of our stay. It was fed four or five times daily on
jackrabbits, lizards and bird bodies from our skinning table. The meat was
cut into "bite-size” pieces and offered to the bird by holding it between
two fingers. It ate readily from the first, and also seemed to enjoy water
when it was offered. The bird was believed to be about a month old when
captured, and in the following two weeks virtually all of the juvenal
feathers had appeared except for those of the head.

In November, 1948, the bird was still in captivity, and thriving on a
horse-meat diet.

Far abut eo uni cine tus harrisi (Audubon)

Harris’ Hawk (33 5.)

1 juv. $ , non-breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir,
cottonwood association, July 7.

Harris’ Hawk was observed only in the Rio Grande district. The cotton¬
wood association in which this species was nesting was located next to the
river and contrasted strongly with the prevailing mesquite-salt cedar asso¬
ciation.

One immature bird was collected from the edge of a nest 30 feet from
the ground in one of the cottonwoods, and a second hawk was seen to fly
from the nest. Six other Harris’ hawks were soaring in the vicinity of the
cottonwood association.

Aqnila chrysaetos subsp.

Golden Eagle

Sight Record

The golden eagle was seen by C. E. Miller Jr., attacking a fox (Urocyon
cinereoargenteus ) q which had been caught in a steel trap. This bird was in
the catclaw-grama association of the roughland. There is no record of this
species in any of the other associations of the Sierra Vieja district or in the
Rio Grande Basin district, but it undoubtedly occurs in others.

Falco species
Falcon

Sight Record

In the Plains belt on July 6, this falcon was found perched on a lone
hackberry tree in the yucca-blackbrush-grama association.

112

The Texas Journal of Science

Callipepla squamata subsp.
Scaled Quail

Sight Record

These birds were distributed throughout both the Roughland and the
Plains belts.

These birds appeared to be breeding throughout the basin area, but
they were most frequently seen in the large area covered by the mesquite-
huisache-blackbrush and the tobosa-grama association. Although they were
most common in the Plains belt, they were not restricted to it, as they were
also observed in the stream bed and the lechuguilla-beargrass associations in
the Roughland belt.

No specimens were collected at the request of Mr. C. E. Miller. The
scaled quails of our region are probably referable to C. squamata pallida
Brewster.

Lophortyx gambeli gambeli Gambel
Gambel’s Quail (295.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, June 6; 1 a. $ , 10 miles northwest of Porvenir,
mesquite-salt cedar association July 7.

With the exception of the cottonwood association these birds were
distributed throughout the Rio Grande Basin district. They were not abun¬
dant in the mesquite-salt cedar association, where our two specimens were
collected.

It was the habit of this species to post a cock bird as a sentinel, usually
on a dead tree, to guard the covey from danger. His sharp cry of alarm
would scatter the birds, and when the danger was past the sentinel would
utter a peculiar whistling call to regather the covey.

Pairs were seen perched on trees occasionally.

Although much wilder than the scaled quail seen in the Plains belt,
this may have been due in part to long protection of the latter on the C. E.
Miller ranch rather than to inherent differences in the behavior of the two
species.

Oxyechus vociferus vociferus (Linnaeus)

Killdeer (273.)

1 ad. non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-
grama association, June 22; 1 ad. 2 , breeding condition, 11 miles west
of Valentine, tobosa-grama association, June 8.

In the Plains belt this species was apparently restricted to the one as¬
sociation which contained water at the time of this survey. It is probable
that the killdeer is found in other associations in this life belt during
periods of abundant rainfall, when ponds are formed throughout the basin
area.

In the Rio Grande Basin district these birds were seen along the sand
bars of the stream bed association.

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

113

Numenhis americanm americanm Bechstein
Long-billed Curlew (264.)

1 ad. breeding condition (1.7 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine,
tobosa-grama association, June 24.

This specimen, which was collected in the Plains belt, was the only
curlew seen, although Mr. C. E. Miller Jr. has observed them in this area
in considerable numbers in past years.

Columba fasciata fasciata Say
Band- tailed Pigeon (312.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition (13.3 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine,
creosote-catclaw-blackbrush association, June 23.

The specimen collected was the only one seen in the Plains belt. It was
perched on top of a catclaw bush in the creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush
association when found. Normally this species is found at higher elevations,
e.g. in the roughland area of this survey, and its presence on the plain is
considered unusual.

One other band-tailed pigeon was seen flying over the catclaw-grama
association in the Roughland belt.

Examination of the crop of our specimen revealed a large number of
reddish sumac berries (Scbmaltzia micro pbylla) .

Xenaidura mac four a subsp.
Mouring Dove

Sight Record

Mourning doves were seen in both the catclaw-grama and stream bed
association of the Roughland belt.

In the last week of June, 1948, a dove was found incubating two
eggs in an oak tree, six feet from the ground, in the stream bed of Z-H
Canyon, and both eggs hatched within a few days after we first located
them.

Melopelia asiatica subsp.

White-winged Dove

Sight Record

The white-winged dove was seen throughout the Rio Grande Basin
district, and was most common in the mesquite-salt cedar association. In
the Roughland belt of the Sierra Vieja district they were found nesting
in the catclaw-grama and stream bed association, and were most common
in the latter. This species was more common than the mourning dove in
both districts.

Coccyzm americanm americanm (Linnaeus)

Yellow-billed Cuckoo (3 87.)

1 ad. 6, breeding condition (14 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine,
stream bed association, June 17.

These birds were recorded from the Rio Grande Basin district in the
mesquite-salt cedar association, and from the Roughland belt of the Sierra

114

The Texas Journal of Science

Vieja district in the stream bed association. They were heard more often
than seen in both areas.

Geococcyx calif or ritanus (Lesson)

Road-runner (3 8 5.)

1 ad. $, 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-tobosa association, June
5 ; 1 ad. $ , 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, ocotillo-creosote-bush asso¬
ciation, June 17; 1 juv. $ , 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, July 7; 1 juv. (2-3 days old), eight miles west
of Valentine, yucca-blackbrush-grama association, June 2 5.

Roadrunners were seen throughout the Rio Grande Basin district. In
the Plains belt of the Sierra Vieja district they were observed in the yucca-
blackbrush-grama and in the catclaw-tobosa associations.

On June 24 a nest was discovered in the yucca-blackbrush-grama as¬
sociation. The nest was three feet from the ground in a koeberlinia bush,
and contained five very young birds. The young were practically feather¬
less, and showed a vigorous feeding response when their bills were touched.

We visited the nest again the following day and found one of the
adults on the nest. The party was in a jeep, and the bird remained on the
nest when we drove to within 10 feet of it. We walked as close as five
feet from the bush before the adult bird burst out of the opposite side
and ran straight away from us for about 75 yards where it crouched be¬
hind a catclaw bush.

One of the young was collected, and examination of its greatly dis¬
tended stomach revealed a whole lizard (Holbrook/a maniculatas) almost
the size of the bird. A week later the nest was empty.

Bubo virginianus pallescens Stone
Western Horned Owl (375a.)

1 ad. $ , non-breeding condition ,nine miles southwest of Valentine,
mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association, June 28; 1 ad. $, non¬

breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff association,
June 2 8.

We found this owl in many of the canyons of the Roughland belt.
During the day this species was seen perched on the rock bluffs. On one
occasion one was seen on a high ledge facing a cliff in Z-H Canyon, by
which means he was effectively camouflaged. Others were discovered in
trees on the canyon floors.

A horned owl was also observed in the mesquite-huisache-blackbrush
association of the Plains belt. It was perched in a mesquite tree about six
feet from the ground. When approached it flew in a straight line away
from the observer, two or three feet from the ground, no higher than the
surrounding vegetation, for about three hundred yards, where it landed on
the ground. When approached a second time it behaved in a similar manner.

Every evening at dusk these owls could be seen flying down the can¬
yons toward the plains area.

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

115

Owl pellets found in the mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association
contained bones of the western cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii) , and the
plains pocket gopher ( Cratogeomys castanops) , as well as an unidentified
bird skull, possibly a goatsucker of some kind.

Pellets taken from the ledge in the rock bluff associations where one
of our specimens was collected contained bones of Neotoma micro pus, the
packrat, and one unidentified species of rodent.

Speotyto cunicularia
Burrowing Owl

Sight Record

Several owls of this species were seen in an old prairie dog town in the
tobosa-grama association in the Plains belt. A specimen was collected west
of Valentine in Jeff Davis County in this same type association.

Phalaenoptilus nut t alii nut tall i (Audubon)

Nuttall’s Poor-will (418.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition (soft-shelled egg in the oviduct), 11 miles
west of Valentine, lechuguilla-beargrass association, June 7.

This species was most frequently heard and seen flying in the canyons
of the Roughland belt at dusk.

On June 7, 1948, a specimen was flushed from a rocky area in the
lechuguilla-beargrass association of the Roughland belt. It feigned a broken
wing and fluttered five or six yards from the spot where it was first no¬
ticed, apparently in an effort to distract our attention from its nesting
site. After a fruitless search for eggs or young we collected the bird, which
on later examination proved to have a large soft-shelled egg in its oviduct.

On June 9, 1948, C. E. Miller Jr. flushed a poor-will from its two
eggs which were in a similar area in the same association, but on another
mesa. The bird was flushed from the site again on June 11, and two young
were found in place of the eggs. The two birds were close together, facing
in the same direction, on the bare ground. No shell fragments could be
found in the vicinity. The birds were covered with down, and had their
eyes shut. They were not touched to observe whether or not they would
show a feeding response.

The parent had flown about 10 yards away from the birds when we
arrived, and it remained there motionlessly watching us until we left.

Chord eiles minor howelli Oberholster
Howell’s Nighthawk (420e.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama
association, June 10; 1 ad. $, breeding condition (17 mm), 11 miles
west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 11; 1 ad. $, breed¬
ing condition ( 2.6 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, mesquite-
huisache-blackbrush association, June 27; 1 ad. 2 , breeding condition
(3 mm), nine miles southwest of Valentine, mesquite-huisache-black¬
brush association, June 29.

This species was found in both the Plains and Roughland belts. Its

The Texas Journal of Science

1 16

range included the entire plains area, although it was most abundant in the
stream bed association of the Roughland belt.

Chord eiles acutipennis texensis Lawrence
Texas Nighthawk (421.)

1 ad. $, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed
association, June 10; 1 ad. 2, breeding condition, 11 miles west of
Valentine, stream bed association, June 15; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition
(2.5 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama association, June
29; 1 ad. $, non -breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine,
stream bed association, June 14; 1 ad. $ , 10 miles northwest of
Porvenir, stream bed association, June 16; 1 ad. $ , breeding condi¬
tion (9 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association,
June 17; 1 ad. 2, breeding condition (3.9 mm), 10 miles northwest
of Porvenir, stream bed association, June 17; 1 ad. $ , breeding con¬
dition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 26;

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, creosote-
bush-catclaw association, July 2; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition (2.4
mm), 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association,
July 7.

Five of our specimens were collected in the Roughland belt, one in
the Plains belt, and the other four were taken in the Rio Grande Basin
district.

Nighthawks were extremely common in the mesquite-salt cedar and
old field associations in the Rio Grande Basin district. On one trip to this
area, on July 2, they were the common species seen; they were flying back
and forth over the old field association in broad daylight in such numbers
that 3 0 to 5 0 were in sight at all times. They were undisturbed by our
presence, and flew within 1 5 feet of us. They were feeding on the excep¬
tionally abundant insect life, made up in large proportion by mosquitoes.

Many of the birds would light momentarily in trees, and then continue
feeding. At dusk they were seen swooping low over the river drinking and
feeding.

Aeronaut es saxatalis saxatalis (Woodhouse)

White-throated Swift (42 5.)

Sight Record

On June 7, one of these birds was seen flying around a bluff just west
of our camp area in the Roughland belt. Two others of this species were
seen by Dr. W. F. Blair, one in the same general area, and the other in the
stream bed association of lower Z-H Canyon.

Archilochus, alexandri (Boucier and Mulsant)

Black-chinned Hummingbird (429.)

2 ad. $ , breeding condition (2.8 and 2.2 mm), 11 miles west of
Valentine, stream bed association, June 27.

This species was positively identified only in the stream bed association
of the Roughland belt.

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

117

Dryobates scalar is cactophilus Oberholser
Cactus Woodpecker (396b.)

1 ad. 2, non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream
bed association, June 20; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west
of Valentine, stream bed association, June 17; 1 juv. 6 , non-breed¬
ing condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, July
4; 1 ad. 6,11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, July 5;

1 ad. 6, breeding condition (5.5 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine,
stream bed association, June 30; 1 ad. 6, breeding condition (3.4
mm) , 1 0 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association,
July 8; 1 juv. 6, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association,
June 9; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream
bed association, June 26.

Apparently the limiting factor in the local distribution of this species
was the absence of wooded areas. In the Roughland belt such areas were
primarily in the stream bed association. In the Rio Grande Basin district,
the cactus woodpecker was found in the wooded areas of the mesquite-
salt cedar association. The range of this species did not extend into the
plains area where there were but few trees.

T yr annus verticalis Say
Arkansas Kingbird (447.)

1 ad. 6 , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, July 7; 1 ad. 6, breeding condition (9.5 mm),

10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July
7; 1 ad. 6, breeding condition (10.2 mm), 10 miles northwest of
Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 7.

These birds were observed only in the mesquite-salt cedar association
of the Rio Grande Basin district, usually in bands of five or six individuals.

M uscivora forficata (Gmelin)

Scissor-tailed Flycatcher (443.)

1 ad. 6, non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, yucca-
blackbrush-grama association, June 23.

These birds were seen occasionally throughout the Plains belt, either
flying or perched on yucca stalks.

Myiar cions cinerascens cinerascens (Lawrence)

Ash-throated Flycatcher (454.)

1 ad. 6, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 6;

1 ad. 6 , non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-
grama association, June 1 1 ; 1 ad. 6, 11 miles west of Valentine, cat-
claw-grama association, June 7; 1 ad. 6, 11 miles west of Valentine,
catclaw-grama association, June 1 1 ; 1 ad. 6, breeding condition (12
mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 15;

1 ad. $, 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-grama association, June
6; 1 ad. 6, breeding condition (18 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine,
stream bed association, June 5 ; 1 ad. 6, breeding condition, 10 miles

118

The Texas Journal of Science

northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 2; 1 ad.
ft , 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association,
June 15; 1 ad. ft , non-breeding condition. 10 miles northwest of Por¬
venir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 7; 1 ad. ft , breeding con¬
dition (16 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association,
June 16.

We recorded this species in the Rio Grande Basin district ,and in the
Plains and Roughland belts. It was most common in the Roughland belt,
where it was generally scattered throughout the main associations.

On July 5, two of these flycatchers were seen carrying nesting mater¬
ial, mostly grasses, to a yucca where they were building a nest about eight
feet from the ground. The yucca was in the stream bed association of Z-H
Canyon. The ash-throat was by far the most abundant flycatcher in both
the Roughland and Plains belts.

Sayornis nigricans nigricans (Swainson)

Black Phoebe (458.)

1 juv. 6,11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff association, June 12;

1 juv. ft , 11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff association, June 11;

1 ad. 6,11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff association, June 12.

Specimens were collected only in the Roughland belt along the rock
bluff association. Wherever pools of water were found in this area there
was likely to be a black phoebe perched on the rocky canyon wall nearby,
ready to dart out over the water for insects.

Sayornis say a say a (Bonaparte)

Say’s Phoebe (457.)

1 juv. $, non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream
bed association, June 21; 1 juv. ft, breeding condition, 11 miles west
of Valentine, stream bed association, June 14; 1 ad. ft, 11 miles west
of Valentine, rock bluff association, June 11.

The records for this species include only the stream bed and rock
bluff assorications of the Roughland belt. The one specimen that was col¬
lected from the rock bluff was perched near a small pool of water. The
habits of this species were similar to those of the black phoebe.

Pyrocepbalus rubinus flammeus van Rossem (1934)

Vermilion Flycatcher

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles north of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, July 8.

This female was the only bird of this species seen.

Otocoris alpestris lencolaema (Coues)

Desert Horned Lark (474c.)

1 ad. 9, breeding condition (2.4 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine,
tobosa-grama association, June 6; 1 ad. ft , breeding condition (9.9
mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, blackbrush-creosote-bush associa-

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

119

tion, June 18; 1 ad. 2, breeding condition (2.4 mm), blackbrush-
creosote-bush association, June 19; 1 ad. $, breeding condition, 11
miles west of of Valentine, tobosa-grama association, June 7.

In the Plains belt these birds were common throughout all of the asso¬
ciations. They were usually observed in groups of five or more foraging on
the ground.

T achy cine t a thalassina lepida Mearns

Violet-green Swallow (615.)

1 juv. S , non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream
bed association, June 19.

Our one specimen was collected in the stream bed association of the
Roughland belt. It was collected swooping low over a pool of water in Z-H
Canyon. We did not encounter the species elsewhere.

Petrochelidon albifrons tachina Oberholser
Lesser Cliff Swallow (612a.)

1 ad. $, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed
association, June 14; 1 juv., 11 miles west of Valentine, June 27; 1 ad.

$ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed asso¬
ciation, June 14.

This species was in the Plains belt as well as in the Roughland belt
where all of our specimens were collected.

The nests were built in clusters high on vertical or overhanging cliffs;
at one time 17 birds of this species were counted flying about one of these
nesting colonies.

Corvus cryptoleucus Couch
White-necked Raven (487.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama
association, June 10; 1 ad. $, breedong condition, 11 miles west of
Valentine, tobosa-grama association, June 12.

These large birds were abundant in the Plains and Roughland belts,
and in the Rio Grande Basin district.

On June 11, a nest containing six light blue eggs was found in a lone
hackberry tree in the tobosa-grama association of the Plains belt. The nest,
1 5 feet from the ground, was built on a four-inch thick foundation of
sticks, and was lined with finely divided cedar bark strips to a thickness
of one inch. In the same tree there were the stick foundations of four other
nests, evidently built in past breeding seasons. One of these was 18 inches
deep, and almost as wide, and was probably a combination of several nests
built one above the other.

In the Rio Grande Basin ravens were nesting on a rock ledge 50 feet
above the ground in the ocotillo-creosote-bush association.

Baeolo pious atricristatus subsp.

Titmouse

1 ad. 3, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed

120

The Texas Journal of Science

association, June 22; 1 ad. $ , non-breeding condition, 11 miles west
of Valentine, stream bed association, June 22.

This species was seen only occasionally in the stream beds of the vari¬
ous canyons in the Roughland belt and was found nowhere else.

We have not had the opportunity to compare this material with the
two subspecies sennetti and a trier is tat us. Van Tyne and Sutton (1937)
found that specimens from Brewster County did not fit in either of these
subspecies.

Am i partis flaviceps ornatus (Lawrence)

Verdin

1 ad. $ , 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar associa¬
tion, June 5 ; 1 sex undetermined, 1 0 miles northwest of Porvenir,
mesquite-salt cedar association, June 5 ; 1 ad. $ , 11 miles west of
Valentine, catclaw-grama association, June 7; 1 ad. $, 11 miles west
of Valentine, catclaw-cedar association, June 7; 1 ad. <3 , 1 1 miles
west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 7; 1 juv., 11 miles
west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 30; 1 ad. <$,11 miles
west of Valentine, catclaw-grama association, June 6.

This small bird was most common in the stream bed and catclaw-
grama associations of the Roughland belt. In the Rio Grande Basin district
they were noticed only in the mesquite-salt cedar association.

Of the seven specimens collected, only two have the characteristic
adult plumage. One of these is from the catclaw-grama association of the
Sierra Vieja district, and the other is from the mesquite-salt cedar associa¬
tion of the Rio Grande Basin district. Our other specimens did not have
the bright coloring on the head and at the bend of the wing.

Heleodytes brunneicapillus couesi (Sharpe)

Northern Cactus Wren (713.)

1 ad. S , non-breeding condition, nine miles southwest of Valentine,
mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association, June 29; 1 ad. $ , breeding
condition (4.7 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-cedar assso-
ciation, June 18; 1 ad. <$ , non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of
Valentine, catclaw-grama association, June 30.

In the Plains belt this species ranged throughout most of the associa¬
tions. Many nests were found in the mesquite-huisache-blackbrush associa¬
tion of the Plains belt, as well as a few in the catclaw-grama association
of the Roughland belt. There were usually several nests in each tree that
had any at all, but apparently only one was being used for nesting purposes.
The necks of most of the nests had been repaired or lengthened since the
original building judging from the condition of the material of which
they were constructed.

Cat herpes mexicanus conspersus Ridgway
Canon Wren (717a.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff
association, June 11; 1 juv. non-breeding condition, 11 miles west

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

121

of Valentine, rock bluff association, June 9; 1 ad. 9 , breeding condi¬
tion, 11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff association, June 9; 1 ad.

9, non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff as¬
sociation, June 23.

The wing measurements for our specimens fit in the cons per sus series
as given by Grinnell and Behle ( 193 5). Burleigh and Lowery (1940) re¬
gard their specimens collected in the Guadalupe Mountains as C. m. albi-
f roots.

The canon wren was restricted to the rock bluff association of the
Roughland belt; its liquid notes were heard in the canyons throughout the
day.

Sal pi net es obsoletus obsoletm (Say)

Common Rock Wren (715.)

1 juv. £ , non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream
bed association, June 30; 1 ad. £, non-breeding condition, 11 miles
west of Valentine, lechuguilla-beargrass association, June 21.

These birds were observed on rock outcroppings on the mesas of the
Roughland belt, as well as in the stream bed of West Well Canyon, They
were nowhere abundant.

Mhnus polyglottos leucopterus (Vigors)

Western Mockingbird (703a.)

1 ad. £ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, stream
bed association, July 2; 1 ad. £ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest
of Porvenir, mesquite- salt cedar association, June 1 5 ; 1 ad. 9 , breed¬
ing condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar as¬
sociation, June 15; 1 ad. £ , non-breeding condition, 1 1 miles west of
Valentine, catclaw-grama association, June 19; 1 ad. $ , breeding con¬
dition (11 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association,
June 16; 1 juv. 9 , non-breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of
Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 7; 1 juv. $ , (one to
two days old), 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, creosote-bush-catclaw
association, July 3.

These birds were seen in the catclaw-grama and stream bed associations
of the Roughland belt; in the mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association of
the Plains belt, and in the mesquite-salt cedar and creosote-bush-catclaw
associations of the Rio Grande Basin district.

The mockingbird was abundant in the mesquite-salt cedar association.
One nest was found v/ith young in the creosote-bush-catclaw association of
the Rio Grande Basin district.

T oxo stoma curvirostre curvirostre (Swainson)

Curve-billed Thrasher (707.)

1 ad. £, breeding condition (10.1 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine,
mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association, June 28; 1 ad. 9 , breeding
condition (3.5 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, mesquite-huisache-
blackbrush association, June 28.

122

The Texas Journal of Science

The two birds collected in the Plains belt were the only ones seen of
this species.

Phainopepla nitens nitens (Swainson)

Mexican Phainopepla

1 juv. $ , non-breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir,
mesquite-salt cedar association, July 8; 1 ad. 6 , breeding condition,

10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 2;

1 ad. 6, 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw- grama association, June

6.

These specimens fit the measurements for the series of P. n. intern from
Brewster County given by Van Tyne and Sutton (1937).

The phainopepla was most numerous in the Rio Grande Basin district.
It was also noted in the Roughland belt of the Sierra Vieja district, but
never in appreciable numbers.

Lanins ludovicianus sonoriensis A. H. Miller (1931)

Sonoran Shrike

1 juv. 6, non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, creo¬
sote, bush-catclaw-blackbrush association, June 26; 1 juv. $ , non¬
breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama associa¬
tion, June 10; 1 juv. $, non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of
Valentine, creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush association, June 25; 1 ad.

6, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, creosote-bush-
catclaw-blackbrush association, June 19; 1 ad. $ , non-breeding con¬
dition, 11 miles west of Valentine, creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush
association, June 26.

Shrikes were seen only in the Plains belt, and there but seldom. On
June 2 5, 1948, Dr. W. F. Blair observed this species feeding around the
base of yuccas in the creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush association. The
bird would work around the base of one yucca and then fly to another and
repeat the operation. It was collected, and the stomach contents consisted
largely of Hymenoptera and Coleoptera fragments.

Vireo belli me dins Oberholser
Texas Vireo (63 8b.)

1 ad. $ , 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 7;

1 ad. ^ , 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, July 4;

1 ad. 6,10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar associa¬
tion, July 3; 1 juv. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valen¬

tine, stream bed association, June 10; 1 juv. 6 , breeding condition, 11
miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 22; 1 juv. 6 >
non-breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt
cedar association, July 3.

The Texas vireo was found only in areas where brush was thick. It
was a rather common bird of the mesquite-salt cedar association.

Vireo vicinior Coues
Gray Vireo (634.)

1 ad. 9 , 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 6;

Birds of the Sierra Yieja Range

123

1 ad. 9, non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, lechu-
guilla-beargrass association, June 23; 1 ad. $ , breedong condition, 11
miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, July 6; 1 ad. S,
breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association,
June 20.

These birds occurred only in the Roughland belt, and like the Texas
vireo, were usually seen only where there was a considerable amount of
vegetation.

This is the third record of this species in Texas. It has been recorded
previously from the Chisos Mountains by Van Tyne and Sutton (1937),
and from the Guadalupe Mountains by Burleigh and Lowery (1940).

Icteria virens longicauda Lawrence
Long-tailed Chat (683a.)

1 juv. $ , non-breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir,
mesquite-salt cedar association, July 8; 1 juv. — , 10 miles northwest of
Porvenir, July 8; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of
Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 2; 1 ad. 9, breeding
condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir. mesquite-salt cedar associa¬
tion, July 7; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Por¬
venir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 8 ; 1 ad. $ , breeding con¬
dition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association,
July 2; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir,
mesquite-salt cedar association, June 16.

The long-tailed chat was restricted to the mesquite-salt cedar associa¬
tion of the Rio Grande Basin district. Here it was very abundant, especially
along the ecotone between this association and the stream bed of the Rio
Grande.

Sturnella magna lilianae Oberholser
Lillian’s Meadowlark

I ad. 9 , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, creosote-bush-
catclaw-blackbrush association, June 25; 1 ad. 9, breeding condition,

II miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama association, June 9; 1 ad. $ ,
breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama associa¬
tion, June 8; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine,
creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush association, June 2 5.

We found meadowlarks only in the Plains belt, where they were gen¬
erally distributed.

Icterus spur ius (Linnaeus)

Orchard Oriole (506.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, July 8.

The specimen collected was the only one of this species seen.

Icterus parisorum Bonaparte
Scott’s Oriole (504.)

1 juv. $ , breeding conditions, 1 1 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-

124

Thf Texas Journal of Science

grama association, June 27; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west
of Valentine, creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush association, June 23;

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, July 8; 1 ad. $, breeding condition, 11 miles
west of Valentine, creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush association, June
22; 1 ad. $, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream
bed association, June 15.

Scott’s oriole occurred in both the Roughland and Plains belt, and in
the Rio Grande Basin district. In addition to the association in which speci¬
mens were collected, it was seen in the lechuguilla-beargrass association on
the highest mesas in the Roughland belt.

It was found in greatest numbers in the creosote-bush-catclaw-black-
brush association, where it traveled in loose flocks of three to six birds.

Cassidix mexicanus subsp.

Grackle

Sight Record

Only one grackle was seen in the Plains belt, near a tank in the black-
brush-creosote-bush association, while none was found in the Roughland
belt. Several were seen in the mesquite-salt cedar association of the Rio
Grande Basin district.

Molothrus ater obscurus (Gmelin)

Dwarf Cowbird (495a.)

1 juv., 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association,
July 8; 1 ad. $, breeding condition (7.2 mm), 10 miles northwest
of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 2; 1 ad. $ , breeding
condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir. mesquite-salt cedar associa¬
tion, June 16; 1 ad. breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valen¬
tine, stream bed association, June 20; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11
miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 22; 1 ad. $ ,
breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-grama asso¬
ciation, June 10; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition (9 mm) ,11 miles west
of Valentine, stream bed association, June 15.

This species was present in large numbers in the stream bed association
of the Roughland belt. Flocks ranged throughout the roughland with the
exception of the mesas. Dwarf cowbirds were also present in appreciable
numbers in the mesquite-salt cedar association in the Rio Grande Basin
district.

Piranga rubra cooperi Ridgway
Cooper’s Tanager (610a.)

1 ad. S , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, ocotillo-
creosote-bush association, July 2 ; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 1 1 miles
west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 25; 1 ad. $ , breeding
condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 12;

1 ad. $ , 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar associa¬
tion, July 7; 1 ad. $ , non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Val¬
entine, stream bed association, June 10; 1 juv. $ , breeding condition,

10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, June

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

125

17; 1 juv. £ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream
bed association, June 7; 1 ad. $ , 14 miles southeast of Porvenir, mes¬
quite-salt cedar association, June 5 ; 1 ad. 2 , breeding condition, 1 1
miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama association, June 16.

This tanager was always seen in the more thickly wooded portions of
the canyons in the roughland. It was in the Rio Grande Basin district, and
was found in the Plains belt of the Sierra Vieja district.

Pyrrhuloxia sinuata sinuata (Bonaparte)

Arizona Pyrrhuloxia (594.)

I ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, July 2; 1 ad. #, breeding condition (9.2 mm),

II miles west of Valentine, creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush associa¬
tion, June 21; 1 ad. 2, breeding condition (3.9 mm), 11 miles west
of Valentine, creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush association, June 23;

1 ad. 9 , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, mesquite-hui-
sache-blackbrush association, June 29.

The pyrrhuloxia was found in the Plains belt and in the Rio Grande
Basin district only. In the latter it was restricted to one . association, the
mesquite-salt cedar, while in the former, it was found in two associations.

Guiraca caerulea interfusa Dwight and Griscom
Western Blue Grosbeak (507a.)

I ad. #, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed
association, June 14; 1 ad.'#, breeding condition, 11 miles west of
Valentine, stream bed association, June 16; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition,

II miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 17; 1 ad. $ ,
breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association,
July 6; 1 ad. $ ., breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir,
mesquite-salt cedar association, July 2; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition,

10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite- salt cedar association, July
7; 1 ad. #, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar asso¬
ciation, July 7; 1 ad. 2 , breeding condition (1.9 mm), 11 miles west
of Valentine, stream bed association, June 20; 1 ad. 2 , breeding con¬
dition (3.4 mm), 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-grama associa¬
tion, June 20; 1 ad. 2 , non-breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of
Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 8.

This species was recorded in the old field and mesquite-salt cedar as¬
sociations of the Rio Grande Basin district, and was most numerous along
the river itself. It was also quite abundant in the wooded portions of the
stream beds of the Roughland belt in the Sierra Vieja district.

Pas serin a amoena (Say)

Lazuli Bunting (599.)

1 ad. 2, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, July 5;

1 ad. 2,11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 30;

1 ad. 2,11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 23.

Phis species was seen only in the stream beds of the Roughland belt.

126

The Texas Journal of Science

Passerina versicolor versicolor Bonaparte
Varied Bunting (600.)

1 ad. breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed
association, June 7; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest
of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 2.

The two buntings of this species which we collected were the only
ones seen; one from the Roughland belt of the Sierra Vieja district, and
the other from the Rio Grande Basin district.

Passerina ciris (Linnaeus)

Painted Bunting (601.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite-
salt cedar association, July 2; 1 ad. S , non-breeding condition, 10 miles
northwest of Valentine, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 3; 1 ad.

$ , breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, mesquite, salt
cedar association, July 8; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 10 miles north¬
west of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 8.

Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) recognize P. c. pallid ior Mearns for the
painted bunting of Brewster County. If this race is to be accepted our
material would also be called pallid ior.

The painted bunting was evidently limited to the thickest part of the
mesquite-salt cedar association in the Rio Grande Basin district. It was
not seen or heard elsewhere.

Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis (Say)

Common House Finch (519.)

I ad. S , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed
association, June 16; 1 $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valen¬
tine, stream bed association, June 20; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11
miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 15; 1 ad. S,
breeding condition, 1 1 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama associa¬
tion, June 8; 1 ad. breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine,
stream bed association, June 20; 1 ad. S , breeding condition, 11 miles
west of Valentine, catclaw-cedar association, June 14; T ad. $ , 11
miles west of Valentine, catclaw-grama association June 6; 1 ad. $ ,
non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, creosote-bush -
catclaw-blackbrush association, June 22; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition,

II miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 19; 1 ad.
non-breeding condition, 10 miles northwest of Porvenir, stream bed
association, July 3.

The house finch was perhaps the most abundant bird in the Roughland
belt, and it was also present in large numbers in the Plains belt, and Rio
Grande Basin district. This species was particularly abundant in shady
canyons during the heat of the afternoon. They frequently traveled in
pairs or larger groups.

Birds of the Sierra Vieja Range

127

Spinus psaltria psaltria (Say)

Arkansas Goldfinch (530.)

1 ad. <3, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed
association, July 5 ; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 1 1 miles west of
Valentine, stream bed association, June 27; 1 ad. $ , non-breeding con¬
dition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 22.

This species was infrequently seen, and then only in trees in stream
beds of the Roughland belt.

Pipilo f us cms texanus van Rossem (1934)

Canon To whee (591.)

1 ad. $, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, lechuguilla-
beargrass association, June 23; 1 ad. S, breeding condition, 11 miles
west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 1 5 ; 1 ad. $ , breeding
condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-grama association, June
29; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-
grama association, June 8; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west
of Valentine, stream bed association, June 1 5 ; 1 ad. 9, non-breeding
condition, 1 1 miles west of V alentine, catclaw-cedar association, June
14.

The canon towhee ranged throughout the Plains and Roughland belts,
from the highest mesas of the roughland down to the plain, however, it
was most common in the stream beds of roughland, particularly in Knox
Canyon. The birds would run under rocks rather than fly when pursued.

Aimophila ruficcps tenuirostra Burleigh and Lowery
Guadalupe Mountain Rock Sparrow

I ad. S , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, rock bluff as¬
sociation, June 12; 1 ad. $ , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Val¬
entine, stream bed association, June 22; 1 ad. S , breeding condition,

II miles west of Valentine, stream bed association, June 18; 1 ad.

11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-grama association, June 7; 1 ad.

$■ i 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw, grama association, June 6;

1 ad. $, breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, stream bed
association, June 15; 1 ad. $ , breedong condition, 1 1 miles west of
Valentine, stream bed association, June 23.

Our specimens conform to the description of A. r. tenuirostra as given
by Burleigh and Lowery (1939).

This sparrow was limited to the Roughland and Plains belts; it was
found nesting from the lechuguilla-beargrass association of the mesas to
the catclaw-cedar association of the Plains belt.

On June 23 one of these sparrows was flushed from its nest in the
lechuguilla-beargrass association. The bird fluttered about 10 feet from
the nest feigning an injury in an attempt to distract us. Nests of this
species were found in the catclaw-cedar association near the middle of
June, some of which contained two eggs. This species was abundant in the
stream beds of the Roughland belt.

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The Texas Journal of Science

Aimophila cassini (Woodhouse)

Cassin’s Sparrow (578.)

1 ad. $ , breeding condition (4.6 mm), nine miles southwest of Valen¬
tine, mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association, June 28; 1 ad. $ , breed¬
ing condition, nine miles southwest of Valentine, mesquite-blackbrush
association, June 29.

This sparrow was seen only in the one Plains belt association in which
it was collected.

Am phispiza biline ata opuntia Burleigh and Lowery
Frijole Desert Sparrow

1 ad. S', breeding condition (7.6 mm), nine miles southwest of Valen¬
tine, mesquite-huisache-blackbrush association, June 28; 1 ad. $,11
miles west of Valentine, lechuguilla-beargrass association, June 7; 1 ad.

S , breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, tobosa-grama as¬
sociation, June 8 ; 1 ad. $ , non-breeding condition, 1 1 miles west of
Valentine, creosote-bush-catclaw-blackbrush association, June 21; 1 ad.

Sf non-breeding condition, 11 miles west of Valentine, catclaw-grama
association, June 7; 1 ad. $ , non-breeding condition, 10 miles north¬
west of Porvenir, mesquite-salt cedar association, July 7.

Our specimens conform to the description of Opuntia as described by
Burleigh and Lowery (1939).

The desert sparrow was the most common bird in the Roughland and
Plain belts. It was present in every association of the two belts, and was
everywhere abundant with the exception of the rock bluff association. It
was present in the Rio Grande Basin district, but was not widespread
there. In this area it was noted in the old field and ocotillo-creosote-bush
associations, and was most abundant in the latter. It was not seen in the
mesquite-salt cedar association.

FAUNAL AND BIOGEOGRAPHIC RELATIONS OF THE BIRDS

The birds of the Sierra Vieja region including the Rio Grande Basin
district represent three major faunal elements. Twenty-seven of the 63
species are wide-ranging forms that occur throughout much of North
America, and occur in many biotic provinces. These species include:

Ardea herodias
Cathartes aura
Buteo jamaicensis
Parabuteo unicinctus
Aquila chrysaetos
Falco species
Oxyechtis vociferus
2,enaidura macroura
Coccyzus americanus
Bubo virginianus
Speotyto cunicularia
Chordeiles minor

Otocoris alpestris
Petrochelidon albifrons
Mimus polyglot tos
Lanius ludovicianus
Vireo belli
Icteria virens
Sturnella magna
Icterus spurius
Cassidix mexicanus
Molothrus ater
Piranga rubi'a
Guiraca caerulea

Birds of the Sierra Yieja Range

129

Muscivora forficata Passerina ciris

Sayornts saya

Thirteen species have their centers of distribution in Mexico, and range
into our region from the south. These include:

Lophortyx gambeli
Melopelia asiatica
Dry abates sc alar is
Pyrocephalus rubinus
Corvtis cryptoleucus
Baeolophus atricristatus
Heleodytes brunneicapillus

T oxo stoma curvirostre
Vireo vicinior
Icterus par isoruin
Pyrrhuloxia sinuata
Passerina versicolor
Sp inus psaltria

Twenty-three species range widely
America and occur there in several biotic

Buteo swainsoni
Callipepla squamata
N umenius americanus
Columba fasciata
Geococcyx calif ornianus
Chord Piles acutipennis
Phalaenoptilus mitt alii
Aeronautes saxatalis
Archilochus ale x an dr i
T yr annus verticalis
Myiarchus cinerascens
Sayornis nigricans

in the western part of North
provinces. These include:

T achycineta thalassina
Auriparus flaviceps
Gather pes mexicanus
Salpinctus obsoletus
Phainope pi a nitens
Passerina atnoena
Car podactis mexicanus
Pipilo f us cus
Aimophila ruficeps
Aimophila cassini
Amphispiza bilineata

Faunal affinities of the birds of this district may be summarized as
follows: 27 species (42.9%) widely distributed, 13 species (20.6%) Mexi¬
can, 24 species (36.5%) wide ranging in western North America.

Ornithological field work has been done in two other nearby areas of
Trans-Pecos Texas. Approximately 100 miles to the north of the Sierra
Vieja range, in the Navahonian biotic province as limited by Dice (1943),
work was carried out by Burleigh and Lowery (1940) at intervals during
193 8 and 1939. To the east of the area of our survey, Van Tyne and Sutton
(1937) did field work throughout Brewster County in 1928, 1932, 1933,
and 193 5.

Forty-six (54.1%) of the 85 breeding birds found by Burleigh and
Lowery in the Guadalupe Mountains were not recorded in the survey of the
Sierra Vieja range. Of these 46 species all but 18 (39.1%) occurred at
altitudes higher than those of the Sierra Vieja Mountains, the highest peak
of which is 6,467 feet.

Greater elevation of the Guadalupe Mountains seems to be primarily
responsible for the fact that 54.1% of the breeding birds found by Burleigh
and Lowery (1940) were not recorded in the Sierra Vieja range. The
Guadalupes reach a maximum elevation of 8,000 feet and consequently
have a number of ecological associations not present in the much lower
Sierra Viejas. The Guadalupes are included by Dice (1943) in the Nava¬
honian biotic province,

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Fourteen species (22.2%) of the 63 recorded from the Sierra Vieja
range were not found in the Guadalupe Mountains by Burleigh and Lowery
(1940). Three species (4.7%) of the 63 recorded from the Sierra Vieja
range were not included in the survey of Brewster County by Van Tyne
and Sutton (1937).

We failed to find 5 5 (46.6%) of the 118 species of birds that appear
from Van Tyne’s and Sutton’s (1937) discussion to breed in Brewster
County. These authors listed as breeding and probably breeding a total of
118 species. Several of these birds occurred at higher altitudes than 4500
feet, at which altitude most of our field work was done. It is probable that
additional field work in the Sierra Vieja range would reveal other species
of breeding birds.

SUMMARY

A survey of the ecological distribution of the summer resident birds
was made in the Sierra Vieja region of Presidio County, Texas, from June
5 to July 9, 1948. Sixty- three species of birds were recorded in the Sierra
Vieja region. Fifty-four species (216 specimens) were collected. Nine addi¬
tional species were recorded on the basis of sight records.

Twenty-four species of birds in the Sierra Vieja biotic district appear
to be restricted to the Roughland life belt, which includes the mountain
mass above 4500 feet. Thirteen species are apparently limited to the Plains
life belt, which occurs on the Valentine plain below 4500 feet. The Rio
Grande Basin biotic district to the west of the Sierra Vieja range, differs
markedly from the Sierra Vieja district in altitude, vegetation, and amount
of water present. Eight (24.2%) of the 3 3 species seen or collected in this
district were not found in the Sierra Vieja district.

The birds of the Sierra Vieja region, including the Rio Grande district,
represent three different faunal elements: the wide ranging forms which
occur throughout much of North America, the species limited mainly to
Mexico, and those birds which are wide-ranging in the western part of
North America.

The faunal affinities of the birds of these districts are summarized as
follows: 26 species (41.2%) widely distributed, 13 species (20.6%) Mexi¬
can, and 24 species (38.0%) wide ranging in western North America.

Fifty-five (46.6%) of the breeding birds listed from Brewster County
by Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) were not recorded in the Sierra Vieja
range, Forty-seven (54.6%) of the breeding birds of the Guadalupe Moun¬
tains as listed by Burleigh and Lowery (1940) were not found there. Of
the species from Brewster County not recorded in the Sierra Vieja range,
14.2% occurred at higher altitudes than were present in the area covered
by this survey. Likewise, 61.8% of the Guadalupe Mountain breeding birds
which we failed to find occurred at high altitudes.

literature cited

American Ornithologists’ Union — 1931 — Check-list of North American Birds. American
Ornithologists’ Union, Lancaster, Pa. 526 pp.

Burleigh, Thomas D. and George H. Lowery, Jr. — 1940Birds of the Guadalupe Mountain re¬
gion of western Texas. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. L.S.U. No. 8 : 151.

- — — 1939 — Description of two new birds from western Texas. Occas. Pap.

Mus. Zool., L.S.U. 6: 67-68.

Relative Emphasis Upon Natural and Social Science

131

Dice, Lee R. — 1943 — The biotic provinces of North America. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor :
78 pp., 1 map.

Friedmann, Herbert — 1933 — Critical notes on American Vultures. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.
46: 187-190.

Grinnell, J. and William H. Behle — 1935 — Comments upon sub-species of Catherpes mexi-
canus. Condor 37 : 247-251, 1 text fig.

Miller, A. H. — 1931 — Systematic revision and natural history of the American shrikes
(Lanius), Univ. of Calif. Publ. Zool. 38: 11-242, 65 text figs,
van Rossem, A. J. — -1934 — A subspecies of the brown towhee from south-central Texas.
Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 7 : 371-372.

— - — — — - 1934a— Notes on some types of North American birds. Trans. San Diego

Soc. Nat. Hist. 7 : 350-352.

Van Tyne, Joselyn and George Miksch Sutton — 1937 — The birds of Brewster County, Texas.

Misc. Publ., Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 37: 1-119, 1 map, 5 pis.

York, C. L. — 1949 — The physical and vegetational basis for animal distribution in the Sierra
Vieja range of southwestern Texas. Tex. J. Sci. 1(3) : 46-62, 2 figs.

TRENDS IN RELATIVE EMPHASIS UPON NATURAL
AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

David G. Steinicke, Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural Economics and Sociology
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas

INTRODUCTION

Many of us are aware of considerable difference in the emphasis that
has been given to natural and social science. The recent war accented this
difference. A number of writers have observed this thoughtfully and pub¬
lished their reactions. Included among them are George Lundberg, Stuart
Chase, Warner Gettys, and Harry Barnes. I have borrowed liberally from
them since their idea? fit my own thinking very well.

THE PRESENT SITUATION

Human ingenuity has produced some spectacular achievements in re¬
cent years. As a result humanity faces sharply drawn and dramatic alterna¬
tives. We have the means of achieving reasonably soon either a literal
material utopia or else a reversion to barbarism and chaos. Progress in nat¬
ural science has produced machines and devices with these opposite potenti¬
alities. If we are able to improve our human relationships, overtake our
machines, and put these machines to work in the service of mankind we
cannot very well avoid attaining a material utopia. This will provide us
with ample leisure and security to build up more creditable and impres¬
sive forms of human achievement on the firm foundation of material pros¬
perity. If, however, the machines and techniques produced by physical and
natural science continue greatly to outdistance the institutions we use to
carry on our human relationships, we face the prospect of economic de¬
pressions, the growth of totalitarianism, devastating world wars, and the
destruction of civilization.

We have worked wonders by the application of technology to the
problems of our physical environment, but we are scarcely conscious of the
application of science in the realm of human relations. In fact, we hardly
recognize the existence of inventiveness in the social sphere. Yet democratic
government, capitalism, the Social Security Act, the United Nations, and
UNESCO are inventions no less than the atom bomb, and they are just a3
capable of technical improvement.

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The Texas Journal of Science

As a people, Americans have come to appreciate the need for experi¬
mental research and technical training in the natural science field, but we
still tend to think that good will, tolerance, and the cooperative spirit are
all we need to make society function properly. These attitudes are vitally
necessary; we shall make little progress without them; and education should
concern itself with developing them. But alone they are not enough. Social
techniques and social mechanisms must be found to express and implement
them.

One often hears or reads, for example, puzzled questioning as to why
man’s intense desire for security and his fear of another war have produced
so little actual progress toward peace in the world. But man’s fear of small¬
pox did not eliminate that scourge until medical science and technology
had invented and improved the technique of vaccination. Nor did man’s
desire to fly enable him to accomplish that feat until scientific ingenuity
and engineering skill had produced the necessary mechanism and had trained
men to use it.

In comparable fashion it will take a great expansion in social science
research and social engineering to solve the problems of human relations.
We must learn to respect the need for special knowledge and technical
training in this field as we have come to defer to the expert in physics, chem¬
istry, medicine, and other sciences.

trends

During the past hundred years the material aspects of our culture have
undergone revolutionary changes due to the tremendous development in
natural science and technology. Man has become accustomed to the new
tempo of living and has accepted scientific and technological progress, but
has failed to adjust his social ideas and institutions to the new pattern of its
material culture. Indeed, men are trying to manage a world of machines
with ideas of the horse-and-buggy days and, in some cases, of the stone age.
This failure to modernize our social ideas and institutions makes us wonder
if we can control this technological age. Certainly since Hiroshima many
are asking if the human sciences can really catch up with the atomic bomb.

Unless social science enables us to use our marvelous technology wisely
and efficiently, the technology may well prove a liability rather than an
asset, and be used as an instrument for the destruction of our civilization.

Social science acquired emphasis and funds for research during the
twenties and thirties. Such agencies as the Rockefeller Foundation, the Laura
Spellman Rockefeller Memorial, and the Russell Sage Foundation were gen¬
erous in financing social science studies. The Social Science Research Council
was formed and launched an ambitious program of stimulating, fostering,
and financing research. Universities and state legislatures provided funds
and other support for social science research.

As the depression of the thirties continued, the support for this re¬
search diminished, and by 1940 very little remained. Millions of dollars
were provided for research and training in natural science during the war.
At the same time research and training in social science reached a low ebb.
We won the war with technical knowledge of physical forces; we have vet

Relative Emphasis Upon Natural and Social Science 133

to win the peace with knowledge of social forces. We need much more re¬
search and training in social science to reach this goal. Perhaps social scien¬
tists may justly ask for a "Manhattan Project” in human relations to
insure peace.

WHY HAS THIS BEEN SO?

Traditionally we have not regarded human relations as proper subjects
for serious scientific study. Moreover, most people feel that by common
sense we can get the answers to the problems of human relations. Solutions
advocated include The Golden Rule, Free Enterprise, Cooperation, World
Union, and the Ten Commandments.

Being rather materialistic we readily see the value of research in nat¬
ural science, but scorn the less tangible products of social science. Furth¬
ermore, there are groups who profit, or think they profit, by the existence
of social problems such as war, economic depressions, and the like. But the
application of almost every advance in natural science has been similarly
opposed by those who had vested interests in the ignorance and superstiti-
tion of people. Only the demonstrable superiority of scientific knowledge
defeated such interests.

Many people do not even know what social science means. Evidence of
how poorly informed many people in high places are, about social science,
was revealed in 1946 when the Senate was considering a bill to provide a
National Science Foundation. This provided that the Federal Government
was to subsidize science on a generous scale, especially through fellowships
for talented students. Before the atom bomb, Congress would have had little
interest in such a proposal, but now most Senators were in favor of it.

But should social science be included? The Senaors were not sure what
social science meant. Flere are some of the comments made during that
discussion:

Senator Fullbright: I asked an able scientist yesterday if he
could define social science. He said: "In the first place I would not
call it science. What is commonly called social science is one indi¬
vidual or group telling another group how they should live.”

Senator Hart: The fact is that social studies and basic science
are not sufficiently alike either to be joined by the same legislation,
or to be administered by the same organization. No agreement has
been reached as to what social science really means. It may include
philosophy, anthropology, all kinds of economics, literature, per¬
haps religion, and various kinds of ideology.

Senator Smith: I should like to see social science given aid,
but I think their problem is such a different one that the two
should not be joined in this bill . . . We are trying to subsidize
pure science, the discovery of truth. This has nothing to do with
the theory of life, nothing to do with sociology.

Dr. John M. Potter (late president of Hobart College) : Some
people think you can extend the strict scientific method into al¬
most every region of human affairs. I don’t happen to believe it.

1 was trained as a historian . . . These things it seems to me could

134

The Texas Journal of Science

be far better supplied by experienced men like Mr. Baruch, or by
you gentlemen here in the Senate . . . Statistics . . . ought to be
interpreted by the Congress of the United States . . . Congress
should provide for a division of the humanities, rather than the
social sciences. Such a division should not engage in research . . .
it should stir concern among young men and women for the ac¬
cumulated wisdom of our civilization.

After some discussion, the Senate passed the bill, but with social science
left out. No subsidies were provided for the study of man and human re¬
lationships.

This Senate seminar in social science is an example of the confused
thinking in this field. Even distinguished people are just beginning to be¬
come aware of the subject. The discussion revealed that everyone seems to
feel that he knows the answers to the problems of human relations or that
he can obtain the answers from radio commentators, politicians, preachers,
or editorials in newspapers. What we and our leaders must realize is that
useful knowledge of human relations, just as is true for natural science,
may be obtained only by hard, painstaking research conducted by ade¬
quately trained social scientists.

Among those present at these Senate hearings was a great physicist
who took part in releasing atomic energy. This man, Dr. J. R. Oppenheimer,
had the following comment to make about social science:

I am aware of the difficulties of establishing in these fields
(the social sciences) rigorous criteria of competence and qualifi¬
cation. Nevertheless at a time when the whole world realizes that
many of its most vital problems depend on an understanding of
human behavior . . . and of the regularities which underlie the
operations of our varied society, we should recognize the great
benefits which may come from attracting men and women of
prominence to the study of these questions.

Dr. Oppenheimer’s reference to the regularities underlying human re¬
lationships is revealing of his confidence in our being able to discover what
they are.

While no statistics are available on the relative emphasis in education
upon natural and social science, it is generally agreed that natural science
enjoys much greater emphasis. A survey of the college degrees granted dur¬
ing the year ended June 3 0, 1948, by the United States Office of Educa¬
tion showed that the degrees in natural science and technologies were more
than double the number granted in social science. A more detailed study
of the comparative hours spent in these two fields might reveal that the
difference is even greater.

Undoubtedly a substantial part of this situation is due to the fact
that social scientists have failed as yet to convince any substantial num¬
ber of persons that they are engaged in the pursuit of knowledge which can
be proved to be true regardless of the personal prefernces, hopes, and the
likes of the scientist himself. But all sciences have gone through this stage.

WHAT HAS SOCIAL SCIENCE ACHIEVED?

Some feel that social science has proved no evidence of its value. It is

Relative Emphasis Upon Natural and Social Science 13 5

true that the results are not reflected to any great extent in our manage¬
ment of social affairs. But men have been accumulating data about human
behavior in a form which will eventually permit generalization never before
possible. Important instruments have been invented for measuring opinion,
status, social participation, etc.

One of the simplest illustrations of a social instrument is the election
ballot.

Indeed, the invention and perfection of instruments for the more ac¬
curate and precise observing and recording of social phenomena must be
regarded as among the most important developments of social science. It is
easy to point out flaws in these instruments— -such as how the polls missed
predicting correctly the outcome of the recent election— -but it was easy to
point out the flaws in the early microscopes and telescopes. Without these
beginnings and the patient centuries of undramatic labor, sciences like
bacteriology could not have appeared at all.

Many social science achievements are not dramatic or spectacular, yet
they are significant. I refer to the transition in our time to more humane
treatment of children, the poor, the unfortunate, and the mentally sick as
the result of more enlightened education, social work, and programs of
treatment. This must in a large measure be attributed to the expanding
sciences of psychology, sociology, and psychiatry. Of course, whenever a
war or a depression occurs journalists arid preachers point to the impotence
of economists and political scientists either to predict or prevent these dis¬
asters. But it is a fact that the course of events following World War I,
down to and including the present, was predicted with great accuracy by
some of our social scientists. That nothing was done about it is not the
special responsibility of social scientists.

Further evidence can be cited of how the scientific method has been
used profitably in the social science field. Just as the scientific steps which
led to the secret of atomic energy can be traced, so also we can indicate
the steps leading to present population theory:

1500’s Parishes in England, Germany, and Holland began keeping record of
christenings, marriages, burials, and with these records, birth rates, marriage
rates and death rates could be calculated.

1654 Pascall and Permat formulated the theory of probability as the result
of their interest in gambling odds.

1693 The Royal Society published Halley’s life tables, the basis of actuarial
science.

1790 The first United States Census was taken, recognized as the best national
count so far.

1798 Thomas Malthus, aged 32, published the essay attempting to prove that
in the long run man tends to reproduce himself faster than he can increase his
food supply.

1812 Le Place carried probability theory another long step forward.

1883 Galton, a cousin of Darwin, published INQUIRIES INTO HUMAN FAC¬
ULTY which developed the principle of frequency distribution curves.

1899 Pearson published the GRAMMAR OF SCIENCE, which still dominates
statistical theory.

1932 R, R. Kuczynski developed the “reproductive index” to predict popula¬
tion growth based on potential mothers.

1936 Dublin and Lotka published LENGTH OF LIFE.

1941 U. S. Census of 1910 came out according to prediction, with an error
of less than two-hundredths of one percent.

May I pause to ask if any geologist or physician can diagnose the lo¬
cation of oil or of human diseases with such a small error?

136

The Texas Journal of Science

These steps revealed many "irregularities. 55 They provided support not
only for population theory and research, but also for probability mathe¬
matics, which is now vital to the development of biology, physics, and
natural science generally.

Other excellent examples of useful social science findings are provided
by the Census Bureau, the Scripps Foundation, the Milbank Memorial Fund,
and others engaged in similar or related work of a character that measures
up very well to the standards of natural science.

WHAT CAN BE DONE?

Can Social Science ever hope to catch up with natural science, the in¬
creasingly rapid advance of which constantly creates new problems? Cer¬
tainly this is possible if we devote ourselves to the business with something
like the seriousness, the money, and the equipment and personnel that we
have devoted to research in natural science.

It is not advocated that the study in natural science be reduced. It does
seem imperative that we speed our pursuit of knowledge in social science.
Certainly perfecting techniques for insuring the democratic principles of
peace, security, and happiness will be far more challenging than was the
perfection of techniques for releasing atomic energy — and more important.

Instruction in science of all kinds in our schools lags behind our needs.
We have become preoccupied with teaching science as a particular subject
matter rather than as a method of study. If we wish to remedy this situa¬
tion we must establish and require courses from the grades through high
school and college which are definitely calculated to acquaint everyone
with the broader meaning and methods of science. We must extend the
application of this method to the realm of human behavior.

Furthermore, we need to set up social research laboratories which will
rank with Massachusetts and California Institutes of Technology, Mellon
Institute, and the research laboratories of Bell Telephone, General Electric
and General Motors, not to mention many others. When social science is
supported as generously as natural science has been, it may then be ex¬
pected to produce comparable results.

A very appropriate summary for our present situation was given by
Raymond Fosdick:

We are discovering the right things in the wrong order, which

is another way of saying that we are learning how to control

nature before we learn how to control ourselves.

LITERATURE CITED

Barnes, H. E. — 1939 — Society in transition. Prentice-Hall, N. Y.

Chase, Stuart — 1948 — The proper study of mankind. Harpers, N. Y.

Lundberg, G. A. — 1947 — Can science save us ? Longmans, N. Y.

Gettys, Warner — 1947 — The social sciences face the atomic age. Southwest. Soc. Sci. Quart.

June, 1947 : 1-12.

The Texas Journal of Science

137

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2. Each manuscript must be accompanied by two copies of an
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3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: —

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4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically
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5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: —

Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex.

J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis.

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The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier
for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and
page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all.

6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the
Academy publishing budget. However, for the present it is desirable
that they be kept at a minimum. All illustrations should be in black
and white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper
and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬
trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should
be precise and included with the drawing and illustration.

7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, it pos-

138

The Texas Journal of Science

sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography.
Printing tables is very expensive.

8. Arrangements are being made with the publisher to furnish
three sets of proofs to the editor so that one may be sent to the author
for proof reading before publication. However, until we are able to get
a sufficient mass of type set ahead, it will be very necessary to return
this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have
to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted
on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that
extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has
been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be
made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author.

9. Arrangements are being made to furnish reprints. The follow¬
ing schedule of prices will apply, subject to change. They are identical
with those charged by Copeia, the official Journal of the American
Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. It will be necessary for a
check to accompany orders for reprints, which may be returned with
the proof. This, of course, does not apply to institutional orders, but
only to Academy members ordering personal copies. This keeps book¬
keeping at a minimum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor.
It is felt that this is the most desirable way to handle the matter despite
the fact that in the past it has been the custom for the editor to obtain
the reprints from the publisher and then collect from the individual

member.

100 Copies

On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper

1 Page

2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12

12 to 16

Pages Pages Pages

Pages

4.62

5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84

15.40

Each Additional 100 Copies

1.58

2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89

5.81

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91

10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s
affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts.

Publications Committee
J. L. Baughman, Editor J. Brian Eby
L. W. Blau John G. Sinclair

The Texas Journal of Science

139

As a courtesy to the Academy, in doing business with our adver¬
tisers, please make mention of the fact that you saw their adver¬
tisement in The Texas Journal of Science.

Schlumberger Well Surveying
Corporation

Electrical Well Logging
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“Costs Less Than Mistakes”

Phone Linden 2114-2115 2736 Virginia

HOUSTON 6, TEXAS

HAMMAN OIL & REFINING CO.

HOUSTON BAY CITY

140

The Texas Journal of Science

Professional Directory

J. BRIAN EBY

Consulting Geologist

1404 Esperson Bldg.

Charter 44776 Houston, Tex.

JOHN S. IVY

Geologist

1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas

LEONARD J. NEUMAN

Registered Professional Engineer

Geological and Geophysical Surveys
Petroleum Engineering Reports
Houston, Texas

Geophysics Office Engineering Office

943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705
| Ph. Fairfax 7086

PETTY GEOPHYSICAL

ENGINEERING COMPANY

Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys

317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas

LEO HORVITZ

Geochemical Prospecting

Horvitz Research Laboratories

, Houston, Texas

' Ph. Keystone 35545 3217 Milam Street

HUDNALL & PIRTLE !

Geologists i

James S. Hudnall 510 Peoples Bank Bldg. 1
George W. Pirtle TYLER, TEXAS

G. J. Loetterle 615 Alamo National Bldg.

A. Bart Brown SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

MICHEL T. HALBOUTY

Consulting

Geologist and Petroleum Engineer

Shell Building

Houston 2, Texas Phone P-6376

E. E. ROSAIRE

Prospecting for Petroleum

DALLAS, TEXAS

SHERMAN NELSON

! — OIL —

1 Royalty - — Leases

Seguin, Texas

H. KLAUS

Geologist

KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY

Lubbock, Texas

WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR.

1 Consulting Geologist

2101-03 Alamo National Building

SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS

Consulting Geologists

Appraisals Reservoir Engineers

DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON

Continental Building

DALLAS, TEXAS

IMPERMEX, Baroid’s organic colloidal material, provides superior drillin
muds in spite of the presence of such contaminants as salt, anhydrite, gypsun
and cement. Operators have found it unexcelled for drilling through zone
which might cause the discard of ordinary drilling fluids.

IMPERMEX has long served the industry as a means of providing muds wit
marvelous filtration properties particularly useful for completion work. It fine
more and more application in zones where its extremely low water loss, thi
filter cake, and resistance to contamination enable the operator to dri
ahead with a minimum of trouble, loss of time, and damage to the formatioi
IMPERMEX makes any clay mud a better mud, whether mixed with fres
water or brine. In some areas the employment of IMPERMEX muds has becom
standard practice. Many deep high-pressure wells have been drilled succes
fully largely because the use of IMPERMEX has produced workable muds <
extremely high density, thin filter cake, and low water loss.

Let the Baroid service engineer in your district show you how IMPERME
can save you time and trouble in your wells.

BAROID SALES DIVISION

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LOS ANGELES 12 • TULSA 3 • HOUSTON 2

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CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS

President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Secretary: L, S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Editors: J. L. Baughman, L. W. Blau, J. G. Sinclair
Human health, hygiene and public health :

G. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices.

C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin
Cocouncillor : Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos
Human mind. Preservation qf mental and emotional qualities:

Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin
Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc. :

L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Cocouneillors

Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station

Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houston

Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin

A. B. Melton, Denton

Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Young scientific talent:

C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Cocouneillors:

Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M.

High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston
Conservation education and publicity. Public relations.

J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin
Cocouncillors:

Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum. Dallas
Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin
Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M.

Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth

Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin
UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, M'edical Branch, Galveston
Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls.

J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Food quality and responsible factors.

L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston
Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops.

Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas
Councillor M. A. Hartman, Fort Worth
Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. Jack Miller, College Station
Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. Simon E. Wolff, Ft. Worth
Marine resources.

J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport
Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges.

B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton.

Cocouncillors:

Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Axis tin
Forest and range. Forests as lumber.

Vernon A. Young, Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station
Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio
Underground water and rivers.

Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston
Oil and gas.

William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin

Sulphur........ . . . . .

Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative.

F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin
Metals

Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston
Paleontological collections.

Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin
Archeological collections.

T, N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin

PURPOSE : To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workers
together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the
government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities.
ORGANIZATION : The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior
Academy, there are five Sections: Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and
Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches: East Texas,
South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of science
clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in
secondary schools.

MEMBERSHIP : “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of
science” is eligible to membership.

PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly, the first issue to appear
March, 1949. Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters.
MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held In the fall, and regional meetings in the
spring of each year.

DUES: Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 in one payment.

Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $600.00 in one payment.

Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate
as active members.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Members $3.50 per year; Sustaining Members $8.50 per year.

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